Spodumene: The Lithium Market, Resources and Processes

Abstract

This literature review gives an overview of the lithium industry, including the lithium market, global resources, and processes of lithium compounds production. It focuses on the production of lithium compounds from spodumene minerals. Spodumene is one of the most critical minerals nowadays, due to its high lithium content and high rate of extraction. Lithium is one of the most sought-after metals, due to the ever-growing demand for lithium-ion batteries (LiBs). The data on lithium extraction from minerals is scattered through years of patents, journal articles, and proceedings; hence, requiring an in-depth review, including the comprehension of the spodumene phase system, the phase conversion processes, and the lithium extraction processes.

Lithium-Rich Claystone in the McDermitt Caldera, Nevada, USA: Geologic, Mineralogical, and Geochemical Characteristics and Possible Origin

“…Lithium, essential to Li-ion batteries and electric vehicles, is mostly produced from brines, which are also the largest identified resource [1][2][3][4]. Lithium-bearing pegmatites are also a significant source, were the primary source until a few decades ago, and are generally considered the second largest resource [2,4].…”

“…Lithium, essential to Li-ion batteries and electric vehicles, is mostly produced from brines, which are also the largest identified resource [1][2][3][4]. Lithium-bearing pegmatites are also a significant source, were the primary source until a few decades ago, and are generally considered the second largest resource [2,4]. In contrast, Li clay deposits, such as though occurring in the McDermitt caldera, are called "sediment-hosted deposits" [4] or "unusual lithium deposits" [2] and interpreted to represent "less than 3% of global lithium resources" [4].…”

“…Lithium-bearing pegmatites are also a significant source, were the primary source until a few decades ago, and are generally considered the second largest resource [2,4]. In contrast, Li clay deposits, such as though occurring in the McDermitt caldera, are called "sediment-hosted deposits" [4] or "unusual lithium deposits" [2] and interpreted to represent "less than 3% of global lithium resources" [4]. These deposits are also characterized as "hectorite deposits" [2][3][4] [19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32].…”

The toxicity of lithium to human cardiomyocytes

“…Lithium is the first element in the alkali metal group and the lightest metal. It is very active; therefore, it exists mainly in the form of compounds (such as apatite or aluminum silicide) in the environment [1][2][3][4]. The other two elements in the alkali metal group, sodium and potassium, account for more than 2% in the earth's crust; however, in contrast to them, the existence of lithium on the earth is scarce, counting only 0.0065% [5,6].…”

The toxicity of lithium to human cardiomyocytes

“…Lithium is the first element in the alkali metal group and the lightest metal. It is very active; therefore it exists mainly in the form of compounds (such as Apatite or Aluminum silicide) in the environment [1][2][3][4]. The other two elements in the alkali metal group, sodium and potassium, account for more than 2% in the earth's crust; however, in contrast to them, the existence of lithium on the earth is scarce, counting only 0.0065% [5,6].…”