“…In clinical practice, cancer biomarkers, a substance or process indicative of cancer, can be used for cancer epidemiology, diagnosis, progression surveillance, and prognosis prediction (Hung et al, 2022;Chen et al, 2023). Previously discovered cancer biomarkers included genetic, epigenetic, glycomic, proteomic, and imaging (Varghese et al, 2008;Green et al, 2016;Stone, 2017;Black et al, 2019;Dimitrakopoulos et al, 2019;Kang, 2021;Essa et al, 2022;Han et al, 2022;Yao and Zhang, 2023). Cancer biomarkers have been applied in early cancer detection, tumor progression surveillance, and prognosis prediction clinically (Kazmierczak-Siedlecka et al, 2021;Cong et al, 2023;Jiang et al, 2023;LoRusso and Freidlin, 2023).…”