We consider the expressive power of a general form of higher-order algebraic specification which allows constructors and hidden sorts and operations. We prove a completeness theorem which exactly characterises the expressiveness of such specifications with respect to the analytical hierarchy. In particular we show that for any countable signature 7 and minimal 7 algebra A, A has complexity 6 1 1 if, and only if, A has a recursive second-order equational specification with constructors and hidden sorts and operators under higher-order initial semantics. ] 1997 Academic Press