“…In recent years, advanced machine learning algorithms have been applied in the field of civil engineering, especially deep learning algorithms (Alam et al., 2020; Rafiei & Adeli, 2017), which have played a significant role in the prediction of material properties (Pereira et al., 2020; Rafiei et al., 2017), assessment of engineering benefits (Martins et al., 2020; Rafiei & Adeli, 2018), and detection of pavement defects. Automatic detection methods and equipment for pavement crack images based on deep learning have been developed (Pan et al., 2023). However, these commonly used deep learning methods often face difficulties in detecting cracks in complex scenes, which include images with complex cracks, brake marks, water marks, and shadows (Bai et al., 2021; Yan & Zhang, 2021).…”