Space Plasma Physics: A Review

Hajra, Rajkumar; Zank, G. P.; Sterken, Veerle; Shibata, Kazunari; Nagai, T.; Mannucci, Anthony J.; Malaspina, D.; Lakhina, G. S.; Kanekal, S. G.; Hosokawa, K.; Horne, Richard B.; Glaßmeier, Karl‐Heinz; Gaunt, C.T.; Chen, P. F.; Akasofu, Syun-Ichi

doi:10.1109/tps.2022.3208906

Cited by 16 publications

(9 citation statements)

References 866 publications

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“…The duration of the unloading process corresponds to the expansion phase of a substorm. These textbook descriptions are supported by various observations from the early space ages (e.g., Akasofu, 1977;Hones, 1977Hones, , 1979Kivelson & Russell, 1995;McPherron, 1991;McPherron et al, 1973;Nishida, 1978;Russell and McPherron, 1973;Tsurutani et al, 2023).…”

supporting

confidence: 53%

Location and Timing of Magnetic Reconnections in Earth's Magnetotail: Accomplishments of the 29‐Year Geotail Near‐Earth Magnetotail Survey

Nagai,

Shinohara,

Saito

et al. 2023

JGR Space Physics

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The spacecraft Geotail surveyed the near‐Earth plasma sheet from XGSM = −10 to −31 RE and YGSM = −20 to +20 RE during the period from 1994 to 2022. It observed 243 magnetic reconnection events and 785 tailward flow events under various solar wind conditions during plasma sheet residence time of over 23,000 hr. Magnetic reconnections associated with the onset of magnetospheric substorms occur mostly in the range XGSM = −23 to −31 RE. When the solar wind is intense and high substorm activities continue, magnetic reconnection can occur closer to the Earth. The YGSM locations of magnetic reconnections depend on the solar wind conditions and on previous substorm activity. Under normal solar wind conditions, magnetic reconnection occurs preferentially in the pre‐midnight plasma sheet. Under conditions with intense (weak) solar wind energy input, however, magnetic reconnection can occur in the post‐midnight (duskside) plasma sheet. Continuous substorm activity tends to shift the magnetic reconnection site duskward. The plasma sheet thinning proceeds faster under intense solar wind conditions, and the loading process that provides the preconditions for magnetic reconnection becomes shorter. When magnetic flux piles up during a prolonged period with a strongly northward‐oriented interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) Bz, the time necessary to provide the preconditions for magnetic reconnection becomes longer. Although the solar wind conditions are the primary factors that control the location and timing of magnetic reconnections, the plasma sheet conditions created by preceding substorm activity or the strongly northward IMF Bz can modify the solar wind control.

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supporting

confidence: 53%

Location and Timing of Magnetic Reconnections in Earth's Magnetotail: Accomplishments of the 29‐Year Geotail Near‐Earth Magnetotail Survey

Nagai,

Shinohara,

Saito

et al. 2023

JGR Space Physics

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“…Chorus waves played a dual role in the acceleration and precipitation of radiation belt electrons, and they could cause significant pitch angle scattering of previously trapped electrons into the loss cone and precipitated electrons into the atmosphere (e.g., Bortnik & Thorne, 2007; Millan & Thorne, 2007; Summers et al., 2007; Tsurutani et al., 2022). Low‐energy electrons (several to tens of keV electrons) scattered by chorus waves were the dominant cause of the Earth's diffuse aurora precipitation (Thorne, 2010).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Different Behaviors of Outer Radiation Belt keV and MeV Electrons During Two Sequential Geomagnetic Storms

Wu,

Chen,

Kalegaev

et al. 2023

JGR Space Physics

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Electron flux dropout is an extraordinary phenomenon in the outer radiation belt, which is characterized by a drastic depletion in trapped electron populations over a broad range of energies, pitch angles, and L‐shells. Using data from multiple satellites, we study a 5‐day dropout of MeV electrons and a several‐hour dropout of keV electrons in geostationary Earth orbit (GEO) during two sequential geomagnetic storms. Outward radial diffusion caused real loss of MeV electrons, while asymmetric and depressed magnetic fields led to adiabatic variations in keV electron fluxes. In addition to time scale differences, low‐energy keV, medium‐energy keV and high‐energy MeV electron fluxes behaved differently, involving an increasing trend, an initial decreasing trend followed by an increasing trend, and a decreasing trend, respectively, as observed by Radiation Belt Storm Probes (RBSPs) and low‐altitude satellites during the first storm. Substorm injections accompanied by inward radial diffusion initially produced an enhanced flux of electrons with energies up to ∼100 keV. Chorus waves generated in morning side of magnetosphere were responsible for scattering part of this seed population into the atmosphere. In turn, these enhanced but short‐lived chorus waves accelerated lower‐energy keV electrons to achieve a moderate energy level of hundreds of keV within one day. Additionally, the initial slow outward radial diffusion was associated with MeV electron loss, and there was insufficient time for acceleration by chorus waves, so only MeV electrons could maintain long‐term dropout. Competition between energy‐ and L‐shell‐dependent acceleration and loss mechanisms caused different keV and MeV electron behaviors.

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“…Gradual SEPs are believed to be more important for Space Weather because impulsive SEPs are shorter in duration and induce less intense radiation levels. For more details concerning flares, CMEs and energetic particle acceleration, we refer the reader to recent review by Tsurutani et al (2022a).…”

Section: Figurementioning

confidence: 99%

“…Further reading is encouraged to understand the multiple and sometimes interrelated nature of Space Weather effects/impacts. Helpful reviews and in-depth analyses can be found in the following books: "Collisionless Shocks in the Heliosphere: A Tutorial Review" by Stone and Tsurutani (1985), "Collisionless Shocks in the Heliosphere: Reviews of Current Research" by Tsurutani and Stone (1985), "From the Sun: Auroras, Magnetic Storms, Solar Flares, Cosmic Rays" by Suess and Tsurutani (1998), "Magnetic Storms" by Tsurutani et al (1997), "Storm-Substorm Relationship" by Sharma et al (2004), "Space Weather: The Physics Behind a Slogan" by Scherer et al (2005), "Recurrent Magnetic Storms: Corotating Solar Wind Streams" by Tsurutani et al (2006a), "The Sun and Space Weather" by Hanslmeier (2007), "Space Weather -Physics and Effects" by Bothmer and Daglis (2007), "Physics of Space Storms: From the Solar Surface to the Earth" by Koskinen (2011), "Extreme Events in Geospace: Origins, Predictability and Consequences" by Buzulukova (2018), "Space Weather Effects and Applications" by Coster et al (2021), and a fairly comprehensive review of space plasma physics by Tsurutani et al (2022a). We encourage the reader to explore the literature for the details of all physical processes.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Space Weather: From solar origins to risks and hazards evolving in time

Buzulukova

Tsurutani

2022

Front. Astron. Space Sci.

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Space Weather is the portion of space physics that has a direct effect on humankind. Space Weather is an old branch of space physics that originates back to 1808 with the publication of a paper by the great naturalist Alexander von Humboldt (Von Humboldt, Ann. Phys. 1808, 29, 425–429), first defining a “Magnetische Ungewitter” or magnetic storm from auroral observations from his home in Berlin, Germany. Space Weather is currently experiencing explosive growth, because its effects on human technologies have become more and more diverse. Space Weather is due to the variability of solar processes that cause interplanetary, magnetospheric, ionospheric, atmospheric and ground level effects. Space Weather can at times have strong impacts on technological systems and human health. The threats and risks are not hypothetical, and in the event of extreme Space Weather events the consequences could be quite severe for humankind. The purpose of the review is to give a brief overall view of the full chain of physical processes responsible for Space Weather risks and hazards, tracing them from solar origins to effects and impacts in interplanetary space, in the Earth’s magnetosphere and ionosphere and at the ground. In addition, the paper shows that the risks associated with Space Weather have not been constant over time; they have evolved as our society becomes more and more technologically advanced. The paper begins with a brief introduction to the Carrington event, arguably the greatest geomagnetic storm in recorded history. Next, the descriptions of the strongest known Space Weather processes are reviewed, tracing them from their solar origins. The concepts of geomagnetic storms and substorms are briefly introduced. The main effects/impacts of Space Weather are also considered, including geomagnetically induced currents (GICs) which are thought to cause power outages. The effects of radiation on avionics and human health, ionospheric effects and impacts, and thermosphere effects and satellite drag will also be discussed. Finally, we will discuss the current challenges of Space Weather forecasting and examine some of the worst-case scenarios.

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Space Plasma Physics: A Review

Cited by 16 publications

References 866 publications

Location and Timing of Magnetic Reconnections in Earth's Magnetotail: Accomplishments of the 29‐Year Geotail Near‐Earth Magnetotail Survey

Location and Timing of Magnetic Reconnections in Earth's Magnetotail: Accomplishments of the 29‐Year Geotail Near‐Earth Magnetotail Survey

Different Behaviors of Outer Radiation Belt keV and MeV Electrons During Two Sequential Geomagnetic Storms

Space Weather: From solar origins to risks and hazards evolving in time

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