Sources and human exposure implications of concentrations of organophosphate flame retardants in dust from UK cars, classrooms, living rooms, and offices

Abstract

Concentrations of a number of organophosphate flame retardants (PFRs) were measured in floor dust collected from UK living rooms (n = 32), cars (n = 21), school and child daycare centre classrooms (n = 28), and offices (n = 61). While concentrations were overall broadly within the range of those reported previously for North America, Japan, and other European countries, median concentrations of TCIPP in all UK microenvironments exceeded those reported elsewhere in the world. Moreover, concentrations of TCIPP and TDCIPP in 2 UK car dust samples were--at 370 μg g(-1) and 740 μg g(-1) respectively--amongst the highest reported globally in indoor dust to date. Consistent with this, concentrations of TDCIPP in dust from UK cars exceed significantly those detected in the other microenvironments studied. Concentrations of EHDPP were shown for the first time to be significantly higher in classroom dust than in samples from other microenvironments. When compared to concentrations of PBDEs determined previously in the classroom dust samples; concentrations of all target PFRs exceeded substantially those of those PBDEs that are the principal constituents of the Penta- and Octa-BDE formulations. Moreover, while mass-based concentrations of BDE-209 exceeded those of most of our target PFRs, they still fell below those of TCIPP and EHDPP. In line with a previous observation in Sweden that indoor air contamination with TNBP was significantly lower in newer buildings; concentrations of TNBP in classroom dust were significantly higher in older compared to more recently-constructed schools. Consistent with the reported extensive use of TCIPP and TDCIPP in polyurethane foam, the highest concentrations of both TCIPP and TDCIPP in the classrooms studied, were observed in rooms containing the highest numbers of foam chairs (n = 31 and 18 respectively). Exposure to PFRs of both adults and young children via ingestion of indoor dust was estimated. While even our high-end exposure estimate for young children was ~100 times lower than one previously reported health-based limit (HBLV) value for TCIPP; the margin of safety was only 5-fold when compared to another HBLV for this contaminant.

Organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) in indoor and outdoor air in the Rhine/Main area, Germany: comparison of concentrations and distribution profiles in different microenvironments

“…However, TCPP was detected in indoor air (S1, TCPP = 10.25 ng/m 3 ) collected in classroom without PUF foam furniture. This is in accordance with results from Brommer and Harrad (2015), who also found TCPP in dust samples collected from rooms without PUF foam furniture. Thus, PUF furniture and PUF insulation foam cannot be the only source for TCPP in indoor microenvironments.…”

“…In addition, other studies reported much higher concentrations of OPFRs in dust collected in private cars than in private homes and offices in Germany (Brommer et al 2012), UK (Brommer and Harrad 2015), Kuwait, Pakistan (Ali et al 2013), and Egypt (Abdallah and Covaci 2014). On average, a personal vehicle contains over 105 kg of plastics (9.3 % of materials used), and this proportion continues to increase with time (EFRA 2015).…”

“…Increasing evidences for exposure and emission sources of brominated FRs such as PBDEs in indoor environments caused their progressive replacement by OPFRs (Zhang et al 2011;Newton et al 2015). OPFR levels have been reported in indoor environments in several European countries such as in Finland, Sweden, Norway, Romania, UK, and in New Zealand (Ali et al 2013;Brommer and Harrad 2015;Cequier et al 2015;Dirtu et al 2012;Mäkinen et al 2009;Sjödin et al 2001). However, to date, studies on levels of OPFRs in indoor environments in Germany are scarce (Brommer et al 2012;Fromme et al 2014), and no study on levels of OPFRs in outdoor air in Germany has been reported so far.…”

Concentrations of organophosphate flame retardants in dust from cars, homes, and offices: An international comparison

“…While our UK study found no significant relationships between PFR concentrations in dust from cars, classrooms, homes, and offices and the presence of putative PFR sources in such UK microenvironments [11]; the same study did highlight elevated concentrations of TCIPP in house dust and suggested that this was likely attributable to extensive use of TCIPP in couch foam, as reported in the US [28]. This study explores this further, by comparing concentrations of TCIPP in Australian couch dust and from living rooms in which the couch was located; hypothesising that significantly elevated concentrations of TCIPP in couch compared to floor dust, combined with significant positive correlation between the two groups, would indicate couches to be a significant source.…”

“…We reported recently on concentrations of PFRs in samples of floor dust from UK cars, school classrooms, homes, and offices [11].…”