Source Apportionment of Atmospheric PM10 in Makkah Saudi Arabia by Modelling Its Ion and Trace Element Contents with Positive Matrix Factorization and Generalised Additive Model

Abstract

In this paper, the emission sources of PM10 are characterised by analysing its trace elements (TE) and ions contents. PM10 samples were collected for a year (2019–2020) at five sites and analysed. PM10 speciated data were analysed using graphical visualization, correlation analysis, generalised additive model (GAM), and positive matrix factorization (PMF). Annual average PM10 concentrations (µg/m3) were 304.68 ± 155.56 at Aziziyah, 219.59 ± 87.29 at Misfalah, 173.90 ± 103.08 at Abdeyah, 168.81 ± 82.50 at Askan, and 157.60 ± 80.10 at Sanaiyah in Makkah, which exceeded WHO (15 µg/m3), USEPA (50 µg/m3), and the Saudi Arabia national (80 µg/m3) annual air quality standards. A GAM model was developed using PM10 as a response and ions and TEs as predictors. Among the predictors Mg, Ca, Cr, Al, and Pb were highly significant (p < 0.01), Se, Cl, and NO2 were significant (p < 0.05), and PO4 and SO4 were significant (p < 0.1). The model showed R-squared (adj) 0.85 and deviance explained 88.1%. PMF identified four main emission sources of PM10 in Makkah: (1) Road traffic emissions (explained 51% variance); (2) Industrial emissions and mineral dust (explained 27.5% variance); (3) Restaurant and dwelling emissions (explained 13.6% variance); and (4) Fossil fuel combustion (explained 7.9% variance).

Heavy Metal Pollution and Source Contributions in Agricultural Soils Developed from Karst Landform in the Southwestern Region of China

“…Source apportionment methods, for example, the emission inventory method, source modeling method and receptor model, were initially carried out for the sources of particulate matter in the atmospheric environment, and now these have gradually formed a relatively complete air pollution source analysis technology system [ 35 , 36 , 37 ]. Soil source apportionment is derived from atmospheric source analysis, but it is affected by the complex characteristic of soil heavy metal pollution, such as concealment, accumulation and regionalism [ 38 , 39 ].…”

Sustainable Plasma Gasification Treatment of Plastic Waste: Evaluating Environmental, Economic, and Strategic Dimensions

“…Landfills are an old-fashioned way to eliminate accumulated plastic waste. Due to the city of Makkah’s high atmospheric temperature, more polluted gases are produced in landfills in the first few months owing to the degradation of plastics . Over time, these gases accumulate and damage the surrounding environment, because of the escalation of self-igniting vapors.…”

“…Due to the city of Makkah’s high atmospheric temperature, more polluted gases are produced in landfills in the first few months owing to the degradation of plastics. 8 Over time, these gases accumulate and damage the surrounding environment, because of the escalation of self-igniting vapors. In addition, the emission of polluted gases from the landfill into the air causes pollution and according to scientific studies also cancers.…”

Energy Recovery and Economic Evaluation for Industrial Fuel from Plastic Waste

“…The sustainable development of the environment through energy recovery from plastic waste as a source of fuel oil is proposed. This project is one of a series of projects dealing with waste-to-energy (WTE) technology using thermal plasma [4,5], as shown in Figure 1, in Makkah city on energy recovery from municipal waste, scrap tires' waste, grey water, medical waste, and slaughterhouses' waste as the perspective work. The current article will cover the energy recovery vision from plastic waste, which represents the second vision of the waste-to-energy series, after our article titled "Treatment of wastes by plasma gasification in Makkah" [6].…”