Some Implications of Conditional Reflex Studies for Placebo Research

Gliedman, Lester H.; Gantt, W. Horsley; Teitelbaum, Harry A.

doi:10.1176/ajp.113.12.1103

Cited by 104 publications

(26 citation statements)

References 6 publications

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“…45,46 Pavlov noticed that dogs were salivating to a neutral stimulus such as ringing a bell (conditioned stimulus), which was previously associated with food (unconditioned stimulus). 47 Several studies have shown that conditioning can occur in humans, too.…”

Section: Conditioning Theorymentioning

confidence: 99%

Placebo Theory and Its Implications for Research and Clinical Practice: A Review of the Recent Literature

2007

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Although placebo effect is a common phenomenon in medicine and research, its mechanisms are not well understood. With the advent of modern medicine, placebo became a symbol for an outdated, morally questionable practice implying deceit and paternalism. However, in recent years, there has been an increasing amount of rigorous research into the mechanisms of placebo response and placebo analgesia with most studies coming from the field of pain medicine. New theories on placebo mechanisms have shown that placebo represents the psychosocial aspect of every treatment and the study of placebo is essentially the study of psychosocial context that surrounds the patient. Therefore, its understanding is essential for researchers and all medical practitioners, particularly those dealing with patients suffering from pain, depression, and motor disorders. In this article, we review the theories on placebo mechanisms and discuss their implications for clinical practice and the design of clinical trials.

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Section: Conditioning Theorymentioning

confidence: 99%

Placebo Theory and Its Implications for Research and Clinical Practice: A Review of the Recent Literature

2007

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“…However, one factor that seems to apply to placebo responses across species is that of conditioning, including Pavlovian conditioning. Indeed, Gliedman and colleagues [27] forwarded this account as early as 1957. Subsequently, Herrnstein provided early pre-clinical evidence supporting this hypothesis, showing that a conditioned stimulus (i.e., placebo) paired with the amnesic agent scopolamine causes animals to perform poorly in a memory test.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Placebo-induced analgesia in an operant pain model in rats

Nolan

Price

Caudle

et al. 2012

Pain

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Analgesia is particularly susceptible to placebo responses. Recent studies in humans have provided important insights into the neurobiology underlying placebo-induced analgesia. However, human studies provide incomplete mechanistic explanations of placebo analgesia because of limited capacity to use cellular, molecular, and genetic manipulations. To address this shortcoming, we describe here the development of a rat model of conditioned analgesia in an operant pain assay. Specifically, rats were conditioned to associate a placebo manipulation with the analgesic effect of 1 mg/kg morphine (s.c.) on facial thermal pain. We found that conditioned (placebo) responding bore three of the hallmarks of placebo-induced analgesia: (1) strong inter-animal variability in the response, (2) suppression by the opiate antagonist naloxone (5 mg/kg, s.c.), and (3) a positive predictive relationship between the unconditioned analgesic effect and the conditioned (placebo) effect. Due to the operant nature of the assay and the use of only a mild noxious thermal stimulus, we suggest these results provide evidence of placebo-induced analgesia in a preclinical model that utilizes an affective behavioral endpoint. This finding may provide opportunities for invasive preclinical studies allowing greater understanding of placebo-induced analgesia, thus paving the way for avenues to harness its benefits.

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“…This CR can then also be looked upon as a placebo -in this case produced via fi rst order conditioning. I believe this is what is behind the conditioning explanation of the placebo response of such researchers as Gliedman, Gantt and Teitelbaum, 1957;Hernstein, 1962;Knowles, 1963;and Wickramasekera, 1980. I believe the above two-fold (fi rst-order and higher-order conditioning) explanation may help throw some light on the questions raised in the section on placebos in Kirsch's 1985 paper on response expectancies. This should help eliminate the apparent clash between the 'conditioning' and the 'response expectancy' explanation of placebos if we can look upon the terms 'response expectancy'and 'belief'as being similar as I have previously discussed, and see that conditioning is also a factor in the 'expectancy' placebo, although higher-order as opposed to fi rst-order.…”

Section: Explaining the Placebo Effectmentioning

confidence: 96%

Commentary on a theory of hypnosis based on principles of conditioning and inhibition Part II: benefits of the theory

Barrios¹

2007

Contemporary Hypnosis

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This is Part II of a commentary which places in the contemporary context, 'A theory of hypnosis based on principles of conditioning and inhibition (Barrios, 2001). Whereas Part I includes evidence both in support of the theory and comparisons with other contemporary theories, Part II presents some of the benefi ts of the theory which includes: (1) a further understanding of the hallucinogens, biofeedback, higher-order conditioning, placebos and religion; (2) development of more effective methods of hypnotic induction; (3) development of more effective methods for giving post-hypnotic suggestions; (4) and development of Self-Programmed Control (SPC; Barrios, 1973bBarrios, , 1985, a positive-oriented behavioural improvement programme aimed at producing self-actualization, greater self-effi cacy, and higher emotional intelligence. I present the positive results of SPC's application in the areas of: education, welfare, industry, medicine, and drug rehabilitation. Key words: Placebos, hypnotic induction, self-effi cacy, free will, faith healing, positive psychology Explaining the effects of hallucinogensOne of the benefi ts of the theory is that it led to a theory of the hallucinogens (Barrios, 1965). The same principles of inhibition and conditioning -used to explain the behavioural and therapeutic effect of hypnosis presented in the hypnosis theory including the Stimulus Dominance Hierarchy concept -were used to explain the behavioural and therapeutic effects of the hallucinogens. These effects are seen as resulting from the hypersuggestible state produced by the inhibitory aspects of hallucinogenic drugs in a similar way to how the hypersuggestible state of hypnosis is produced by the inhibitory set aspect of hypnosis. Explaining the effectiveness of biofeedbackAs pointed out in Part I, the reason biofeedback has proven to be so effective for gaining control of involuntary behaviour is that in actuality subjects being put through a biofeedback procedure are being put through a form of hypnotic induction. Helping towards a more comprehensive theory of learningWe know that dramatic, all-encompassing changes can take place in hypnotherapy, sometimes overnight. This often means that all the negative habits, attitudes and

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Some Implications of Conditional Reflex Studies for Placebo Research

Cited by 104 publications

References 6 publications

Placebo Theory and Its Implications for Research and Clinical Practice: A Review of the Recent Literature

Placebo Theory and Its Implications for Research and Clinical Practice: A Review of the Recent Literature

Placebo-induced analgesia in an operant pain model in rats

Commentary on a theory of hypnosis based on principles of conditioning and inhibition Part II: benefits of the theory

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