Solving the aerodynamics of fungal flight: how air viscosity slows spore motion

Fischer, Mark W. F.; Stolze-Rybczynski, Jessica L.; Davis, Diana J.; Cui, Yunluan; Money, Nicholas P.

doi:10.1016/j.funbio.2010.09.003

Cited by 20 publications

(12 citation statements)

References 16 publications

(32 reference statements)

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“…For example, studies of fungal spores showed that the optimal shape for passive dispersal (based on air movements and gravity) is an oval spore with tapered ends [ 3 ]. Other work on fungal spores showed that given the same launch speed, larger fungal spores travel farther than smaller ones, because larger and heavier objects have greater momentum [ 35 ]. Although prior work on OE transmission has not considered aerodynamics to be important [ 12 , 36 ], it seems possible that variation in spore size and shape might affect OE transmission.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Genetic Factors and Host Traits Predict Spore Morphology for a Butterfly Pathogen

Sander

Altizer

Roode

et al. 2013

Insects

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Monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) throughout the world are commonly infected by the specialist pathogen Ophryocystis elektroscirrha (OE). This protozoan is transmitted when larvae ingest infectious stages (spores) scattered onto host plant leaves by infected adults. Parasites replicate internally during larval and pupal stages, and adult monarchs emerge covered with millions of dormant spores on the outsides of their bodies. Across multiple monarch populations, OE varies in prevalence and virulence. Here, we examined geographic and genetic variation in OE spore morphology using clonal parasite lineages derived from each of four host populations (eastern and western North America, South Florida and Hawaii). Spores were harvested from experimentally inoculated, captive-reared adult monarchs. Using light microscopy and digital image analysis, we measured the size, shape and color of 30 replicate spores per host. Analyses examined predictors of spore morphology, including parasite source population and clone, parasite load, and the following host traits: family line, sex, wing area, and wing color (orange and black pigmentation). Results showed significant differences in spore size and shape among parasite clones, suggesting genetic determinants of morphological variation. Spore size also increased with monarch wing size, and monarchs with larger and darker orange wings tended to have darker colored spores, consistent with the idea that parasite development depends on variation in host quality and resources. We found no evidence for effects of source population on variation in spore morphology. Collectively, these results provide support for heritable variation in spore morphology and a role for host traits in affecting parasite development.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Genetic Factors and Host Traits Predict Spore Morphology for a Butterfly Pathogen

Sander

Altizer

Roode

et al. 2013

Insects

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“…This is substantiated in a study of Fischer et al . [ 56 ], in which the Reynolds number for the launch of Pilobolus and Basidiobolus were calculated as 167 and 10, respectively, indicating a higher effect of viscous drag in Basidiobolus .…”

Section: Fungimentioning

confidence: 99%

Shooting Mechanisms in Nature: A Systematic Review

et al. 2016

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BackgroundIn nature, shooting mechanisms are used for a variety of purposes, including prey capture, defense, and reproduction. This review offers insight into the working principles of shooting mechanisms in fungi, plants, and animals in the light of the specific functional demands that these mechanisms fulfill.MethodsWe systematically searched the literature using Scopus and Web of Knowledge to retrieve articles about solid projectiles that either are produced in the body of the organism or belong to the body and undergo a ballistic phase. The shooting mechanisms were categorized based on the energy management prior to and during shooting.ResultsShooting mechanisms were identified with projectile masses ranging from 1·10−9 mg in spores of the fungal phyla Ascomycota and Zygomycota to approximately 10,300 mg for the ballistic tongue of the toad Bufo alvarius. The energy for shooting is generated through osmosis in fungi, plants, and animals or muscle contraction in animals. Osmosis can be induced by water condensation on the system (in fungi), or water absorption in the system (reaching critical pressures up to 15.4 atmospheres; observed in fungi, plants, and animals), or water evaporation from the system (reaching up to −197 atmospheres; observed in plants and fungi). The generated energy is stored as elastic (potential) energy in cell walls in fungi and plants and in elastic structures in animals, with two exceptions: (1) in the momentum catapult of Basidiomycota the energy is stored in a stalk (hilum) by compression of the spore and droplets and (2) in Sphagnum energy is mainly stored in compressed air. Finally, the stored energy is transformed into kinetic energy of the projectile using a catapult mechanism delivering up to 4,137 J/kg in the osmotic shooting mechanism in cnidarians and 1,269 J/kg in the muscle-powered appendage strike of the mantis shrimp Odontodactylus scyllarus. The launch accelerations range from 6.6g in the frog Rana pipiens to 5,413,000g in cnidarians, the launch velocities from 0.1 m/s in the fungal phylum Basidiomycota to 237 m/s in the mulberry Morus alba, and the launch distances from a few thousands of a millimeter in Basidiomycota to 60 m in the rainforest tree Tetraberlinia moreliana. The mass-specific power outputs range from 0.28 W/kg in the water evaporation mechanism in Basidiomycota to 1.97·109 W/kg in cnidarians using water absorption as energy source.Discussion and conclusionsThe magnitude of accelerations involved in shooting is generally scale-dependent with the smaller the systems, discharging the microscale projectiles, generating the highest accelerations. The mass-specific power output is also scale dependent, with smaller mechanisms being able to release the energy for shooting faster than larger mechanisms, whereas the mass-specific work delivered by the shooting mechanism is mostly independent of the scale of the shooting mechanism. Higher mass-specific work-values are observed in osmosis-powered shooting mechanisms (≤ 4,137 J/kg) when compared to muscle-powered m...

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“…Under saturating levels of humidity, matured basidiospores are propelled off from the sterigmata on their basidia by fast hygroscopic development and subsequent actions of Buller’s drop. The surface energy obtained from the Buller’s drop by its fusion with the also hygroscopic liquid adaxial spore film is calculated to be sufficient for the spores to just reach the middle in between two lamellae or ridges or of a pore in order to then fall down out of the mushroom by gravity (Ingold 1939 , 1957 , 1992 ; Webster et al 1984a , 1989 ; Turner and Webster 1991 ; Pringle et al 2005 ; Noblin et al 2009 ; Fischer et al 2010a , b ). In this study, we show indirectly by a dependence on high humidity that ejection of ballistospores from their sterigmata is a prerequisite for later collection of basidiospores from plastic lids positioned above upside-down incubated mushrooms with open hymenia.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Bulk isolation of basidiospores from wild mushrooms by electrostatic attraction with low risk of microbial contaminations

Lakkireddy

Kües

2017

AMB Expr

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The basidiospores of most Agaricomycetes are ballistospores. They are propelled off from their basidia at maturity when Buller’s drop develops at high humidity at the hilar spore appendix and fuses with a liquid film formed on the adaxial side of the spore. Spores are catapulted into the free air space between hymenia and fall then out of the mushroom’s cap by gravity. Here we show for 66 different species that ballistospores from mushrooms can be attracted against gravity to electrostatic charged plastic surfaces. Charges on basidiospores can influence this effect. We used this feature to selectively collect basidiospores in sterile plastic Petri-dish lids from mushrooms which were positioned upside-down onto wet paper tissues for spore release into the air. Bulks of 104 to >107 spores were obtained overnight in the plastic lids above the reversed fruiting bodies, between 104 and 106 spores already after 2–4 h incubation. In plating tests on agar medium, we rarely observed in the harvested spore solutions contaminations by other fungi (mostly none to up to in 10% of samples in different test series) and infrequently by bacteria (in between 0 and 22% of samples of test series) which could mostly be suppressed by bactericides. We thus show that it is possible to obtain clean basidiospore samples from wild mushrooms. The technique of spore collection through electrostatic attraction in plastic lids is applicable to fresh lamellate and poroid fruiting bodies from the wild, to short-lived deliquescent mushrooms, to older and dehydrating fleshy fruiting bodies, even to animal-infested mushrooms and also to dry specimens of long-lasting tough species such as Schizophyllum commune.

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Solving the aerodynamics of fungal flight: how air viscosity slows spore motion

Cited by 20 publications

References 16 publications

Genetic Factors and Host Traits Predict Spore Morphology for a Butterfly Pathogen

Genetic Factors and Host Traits Predict Spore Morphology for a Butterfly Pathogen

Shooting Mechanisms in Nature: A Systematic Review

Bulk isolation of basidiospores from wild mushrooms by electrostatic attraction with low risk of microbial contaminations

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