Solitary Confinement of Inmates Associated With Relapse Into Any Recidivism Including Violent Crime: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Abstract

Recidivism among released inmates is associated with a substantial societal burden given the financial and medical consequences of victimization. Among incarcerated North Americans, approximately 7% are housed in solitary confinement (SC). Studies show SC can lead to psychological deterioration and dispute it can effectively reduce institutional misconduct or recidivism. This meta-analysis aims to clarify the impact of SC on postrelease recidivism, which we hypothesized would increase following SC. A meta-analysis was conducted using PubMed, PsycINFO, Web of Science, and Google Scholar databases from inception until December 2019. Studies on adult inmates in correctional settings were included if they met an operational definition of SC, measured recidivism, and included a comparison group in general inmate population. Random-effect models were used to assess the impact of SC on multiple types of recidivism. Of the 2,713 identified records, 12 met inclusion criteria ( n = 194,078). A moderate association was found between SC and any recidivism (odds ratio [ OR] = 1.67, 95% confidence interval [1.41, 1.97]), which persisted in controlled studies ( OR = 1.41). This association was replicated across types of recidivism comprising violence ( OR = 1.41), rearrests ( OR = 1.37), and reincarceration ( OR = 1.67). Moreover, a more recent exposure to SC increased recidivism risk ( OR = 2.02), and a dose–response relationship was found between days in SC and recidivism. The overall database presented high heterogeneity but no publication bias. Findings show a small to moderate association between SC and future crime/violence. Considering the societal costs associated with antisocial behaviors following SC, mental health and psychosocial programming facilitating inmates’ successful reentry into society should be implemented and rigorously evaluated in strong research design.

Shedding Light on “the Hole”: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis on Adverse Psychological Effects and Mortality Following Solitary Confinement in Correctional Settings

“…Finally, the second mortality study found a significant increase for homicide specifically (hazard ratio of 1.54) ( 17 ). Because exposure to SC also seems to increase the risk of committing violence post-release ( 74 ), it is plausible that releasees also could be at risk of mortality in such altercations. Still, this is the first meta-analytical investigation of mortality following SC and more than two studies are required to further evaluate mortality outcomes.…”

The Timing of Prison Sanctions and the Odds of Returning to Prison After Release

“…At the forefront of this literature is research demonstrating that, after controlling for factors related to rule violations and recidivism (e.g., age, criminal history, misconduct history), the severity and frequency of exposure to sanctions increases difficulties reentering society, in turn increasing the likelihood of recidivism (Butler et al, 2020; Camp & Gaes, 2005; Gaes & Camp, 2009; Silver & Nedelec, 2018). For example, inmates exposed to solitary confinement recidivate at higher rates in comparison to inmates who remain in the general population (Butler et al, 2020; Luigi et al, 2020). Moreover, Cochran and Mears (2017) used group-based trajectories to assess the relationship between prison misconduct and recidivism.…”

“…The existing literature has examined the timing of disciplinary segregation but not the timing of any sanctions including but not limited to segregation (Butler et al, 2020; Clark & Duwe, 2019; Lovell et al, 2007). To illustrate the dearth of research, a recent meta-analysis conducted by Luigi et al (2020) identified only four studies that examined how timing of solitary confinement affected the recidivism rates of inmates. This meta-analysis revealed that the odds of recidivism were higher when inmates were housed in solitary confinement closer to their release.…”

“…In other words, individuals who receive the same number of sanctions during their incarceration do not necessarily have similar outcomes post-release, suggesting the relationship between sanctions and recidivism may be more complex. While various mechanisms can be expected to influence the relationship between sanctions during incarceration and recidivism, including the severity of the sanctions themselves, one mechanism that has received little empirical attention is the timing of an inmate's last sanction during confinement (Luigi et al, 2020). The timing of a prison sanction in relation to an inmate's release from prison may be an important factor to examine because, although all sanctions could have consequences that impact reentry outcomes, there are some consequences associated with receiving a sanction that may only be applicable during certain periods of one's incarceration.…”

“…The extant literature has identified an association between prison sanctions and recidivism (e.g., Butler et al, 2020; Camp & Gaes, 2005; Gaes & Camp, 2009; Lovell et al, 2007; Silver & Nedelec, 2018); however, it has yet to fully consider the effect of the timing of sanctions in an inmate’s sentence. The timing of when a sanction occurs may be a salient factor as sanctions closer to release dates may have stronger influences on an inmate’s preparedness to reenter society (Luigi et al, 2020). As such, this study offers an important contribution to the literature on how prisons can impact post-release behaviors, shedding additional light on potentially relevant theoretical mechanisms while also providing useful information for policies designed to facilitate and promote successful reentry.…”