Solid Soap Phases.

Ferguson, R. H.; Rosevear, F. B.; Stillman, R. C.

doi:10.1021/ie50405a015

Cited by 45 publications

(42 citation statements)

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“…It is inter esting to confirm t h e presence of beta sodium palmitate in th ese toilet soaps by comparing their short-sp acing values wi th those r eported by Thiessen and Elu'lich [IS], F erguson, et a1. [12], l;1nd M cBain, et a1. [15].…”

Section: Toilet Soapsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…On th e con trary, comm ercial soaps ar e convenien t mixtures made from fats and oils con taining both sa turated and unsa tura ted componen ts of varying chain leng ths, and thus have compl ex phase diagrams. It is inter es tin g, however , to test the applicability of F erguson's hypoth esis [12] regarding the absen ce of the alpha phase and the presen ce of only three phases (b eta, omega, and delta) in commerci al soaps to th e presen t da ta .…”

Section: Toilet Soapsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…5 A for '1'5 and T9 ; th e m ean average for th e soaps manufactured in India is 41.7 A, and fo r those manufactured in t h e Unitecl S tates is 42 A. Th e long-spacing values for pure single sodium soaps r eport,ed in th e litera ture are presented in table 5, in which th e nomenclature used to designate th e variou s phases is th e same as th at adop ted by F erguson, et a1. [12]. Accordingly, Bu erger 's [6] I t is seen th at th e closest agr eemen t of th e longsp acing va lues for th e toilet soaps seems to b e with th at for beta sodium palmitate, the values for ' sodium stearate and sodium oleate being rather high , and those for sodium laurate and sodium m yrista te being low.…”

Section: Toilet Soapsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…In th e case of thc sat urated fa tty acids, the property of detergen cy of the corresponding soaps is limi ted to those containing at least 8 and not more than 22 carbon atoms. Several workers [2,4,6,12,13] 3 have emphasized the importance of thermal and mechanical treatm ent givcn to pure sodium soaps, inasmuch as their transformation from one phase to anoth er is readily achieved. Although the comp osition of the fatty stock used in t he manufacture of soaps may Val:y from batch to batch , and certainly from manufacturer to manufacturer, it may be ' well to consider briefly th e soap-boiling process so as to understand the exten t and nature of mechanical and thermal treatment that a commercial soap rec eives.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…solutions with no evidence of fractional crystallization into the constituen t single soaps [10]. F erguson, et al [12] h ave shown from X-ray diffraction studies that sodium soaps exist in four crystalline phases (alpha, beta, delta, and omega), which can be identified by the positions and intensities of the long and short spacings. vVhen two or more phases are present simultaneously, however, the long spacing clianges, bu t the short spacings retain their values and seem to be independent also of the ffJ,tty stock and moisture content.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Characterization of some commercial soaps by x-ray diffraction

Gs¹

1949

J. RES. NATL. BUR. STAN.

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Th e diffraction of X-r ays by 29 commercial soaps was investigated. The patterns ind icate that the oaps ar e crystalline, and t he data have been used to identify the various phases in the solid soaps. The s ingle long-spacing value obtained for the tOilet, medicated, glycerin, coco, and washing soaps is inclicatiye of the existence of a Single crystal type in t hese soaps. The exhibition of two or three sets of long-spacing values by t he 'having soa ps is indicative of t he presence in these soaps of two or three individual phases.'Ihe mo is ture conten t of these soaps indicates that the toilet and medicated soaps a r e either h emihydrates or monohydrates; the coco soaps, clibydr ates; and the sha ying soaps, monohydrates.

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Section: Toilet Soapsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Toilet Soapsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Toilet Soapsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Characterization of some commercial soaps by x-ray diffraction

Gs¹

1949

J. RES. NATL. BUR. STAN.

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Soap

Bartolo

Lynch

2000

Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology

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SOAPSoap is one of the oldest known manufactured chemical substances and was first produced thousands of years ago through the reaction of animal fats with the ashes from plants (1). Early soaps were used primarily for the cleansing of clothing, not for personal hygiene, because of cultural as well as practical reasons. For instance, these animal fat soaps possessed almost unbearable odors and probably contained excessive amounts of unreacted caustics. In the 1990s, soaps are produced using a variety of processes, including kettle boiling, continuous saponification, and hydrolysis/neutralization, as well as different fats and oils feedstocks, yielding finished materials that possess specifically desired properties for application as personal cleansing products.Soap is one example of a broader class of materials known as surface-active agents, or surfactants (qv). Surfactant molecules contain both a hydrophilic or water-liking portion and a separate hydrophobic or waterrepelling portion. The hydrophilic portion of a soap molecule is the carboxylate head group and the hydrophobic portion is the aliphatic chain. This class of materials is simultaneously soluble in both aqueous and organic phases or preferential aggregate at air-water interfaces. It is this special chemical structure that leads to the ability of surfactants to clean dirt and oil from surfaces and produce lather.Although soaps have many physical properties in common with the broader class of surfactants, they also have several distinguishing factors. First, soaps are most often derived directly from natural sources of fats and oils (see Fats and fatty oils). Fats and oils are triglycerides, ie, molecules comprised of a glycerol backbone and three ester-linked fatty oils. Other synthetic surfactants may use fats and oils or petrochemicals as initial building blocks, but generally require additional chemical manipulations such as sulfonation, esterification, sulfation, and amidation.Second, soaps form insoluble complexes, commonly referred to as curd, in the presence of calcium and magnesium ions in solution. Calcium and magnesium ions are the principal metal ions found in water and their level is commonly referred to as the hardness of the water; hard water has high levels of both of these ions, soft water has very low levels. This curd reduces the effectiveness of soap as a surfactant and gives rise to other undesirable properties during use, eg, precipitation on surfaces. Many synthetic surfactants are considerably less susceptible to water hardness. This water hardness insensitivity has led to the replacement of soap by synthetic surfactants in a variety of applications, such as dish and laundry detergents and shampoos. Although soap is still the predominant material used in personal cleansing products, eg, facial, body, and hand cleansing, soap-based personal cleansing products are being rapidly replaced by products that contain increasing amounts of synthetic surfactants to meet changing consumer needs, such as rinsing and lather in hard water and...

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Soaps

Burke¹

2005

Bailey's Industrial Oil and Fat Products

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Soap is one of the oldest known manufactured chemical substances and was first produced thousands of years ago through the reaction of animal fats with the ashes from plants. Early soaps were used primarily for the cleansing of clothing, not for personal hygiene, because of cultural as well as practical reasons. For instance, these animal fat soaps possessed almost unbearable odors and probably contained excessive amounts of unreacted caustics. Today soaps are produced using a variety of processes, including kettle boiling, continuous saponification, and hydrolysis/neutralization, as well as different fats and oils feedstocks, yielding finished materials that possess specifically desired properties for application as personal cleansing products. Soap is one example of a broader class of materials known as surface‐active agents, or surfactants. Surfactant molecules contain both a hydrophilic or water‐liking portion and a separate hydrophobic or water‐repelling portion. The hydrophilic portion of a soap molecule is the carboxylate head group and the hydrophobic portion is the aliphatic chain. This class of materials is simultaneously soluble in both aqueous and organic phases or preferential aggregate at air–water interfaces. It is this special chemical structure that leads to the ability of surfactants to clean dirt and oil from surfaces and produce lather. Although soaps have many physical properties in common with the broader class of surfactants, they also have several distinguishing factors. First, soaps are most often derived directly from natural sources of fats and oils. Fats and oils are triglycerides, i.e., molecules comprising a glycerol backbone and three ester‐linked fatty oils. Other synthetic surfactants may use fats and oils or petrochemicals as initial building blocks, but generally they require additional chemical manipulations such as sulfonation, esterification, sulfation, and amidation. Second, soaps form insoluble complexes, commonly referred to as curd, in the presence of calcium and magnesium ions in solution. Calcium and magnesium ions are the principal metal ions found in water and their level is commonly referred to as the hardness of the water; hard water has high levels of both of these ions, soft water has very low levels. This curd reduces the effectiveness of soap as a surfactant and gives rise to other undesirable properties during use, e.g., precipitation on surfaces. Many synthetic surfactants are considerably less susceptible to water hardness. This water hardness insensitivity has led to the replacement of soap by synthetic surfactants in a variety of applications, such as dish and laundry detergents and shampoos. Although soap is still the predominant material used in personal cleansing products, e.g., facial, body, and hand cleansing, soap‐based personal cleansing products are being rapidly replaced by products that contain increasing amounts of synthetic surfactants to meet changing consumer needs, such as rinsing and lather in hard water and improved mildness to the skin.

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Solid Soap Phases.

Cited by 45 publications

References 0 publications

Characterization of some commercial soaps by x-ray diffraction

Characterization of some commercial soaps by x-ray diffraction

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