Soil is an important pathway of human lead exposure.

Abstract

This review shows the equal or greater importance of leaded gasoline-contaminated dust compared to lead-based paint to the child lead problem, and that soil lead, resulting from leaded gasoline and pulverized lead-based paint, is at least or more important than lead-based paint (intact and not pulverized) as a pathway of human lead exposure. Because lead-based paint is a high-dose source, the biologically relevant dosage is similar to lead in soil. Both lead-based paint and soil lead are associated with severe lead poisoning. Leaded gasoline and lead in food, but not lead-based paint, are strongly associated with population blood lead levels in both young children and adults. Soil lead and house dust, but not lead-based paint, are associated with population blood lead levels in children. Most soil lead and house dust are associated with leaded gasoline. Lead-based paint dust is associated with cases of renovation of either exterior or interior environments in which the paint was pulverized. Based upon the limited data to date, abatement of soil lead is more effective than abatement of lead-based paint in reducing blood lead levels of young children. About equal numbers of children under 7 years of age are exposed to soil lead and lead-based paint. Seasonality studies point to soil lead as the main source of population blood lead levels. Soil lead is a greater risk factor than lead-based paint to children engaged in hand-to-mouth and pica behavior. In summary, soil lead is important for addressing the population of children at risk of lead poisoning. When soil lead is acknowledged by regulators and the public health community as an important pathway of human lead exposure, then more effective opportunities for improving primary lead prevention can become a reality. Environ Health Perspect 106(Suppl 1):217-229 (1998). http.//ehpnetl.niehs.nih.gov/docs/1998/Suppl-1/21 7-229mielke/abstract.html

Fundamental Coordination Chemistry, Environmental Chemistry, and Biochemistry of Lead(II)

“…The average concentration of lead in uncontaminated soils is $20 ppm (47,368). Soil with anthropogenic lead contamination, however, is a major health risk and a main source of human lead exposure (25,369). Urban areas are particularly likely to have high concentrations of lead in soil [as high as 7900 ppm in a Chicago residential neighborhood (25)] because of the effects of industrial emissions, leaded-gasoline emissions, and dust from lead-based paint (25,26).…”

Children, Soils, and Health: How Do Polluted Soils Influence Children's Health?

“…In the USA, about the same quantity of Pb, (5-6) Â 10 6 t, was used to manufacture paint and leaded petrol for a combined total of (10-12) Â 10 6 t (Mielke and Reagan, 1998). Lead-based house paint sales in the US were phased out in 1978 in response to the Lead-Based Paint Poisoning Prevention Act of 1972 (Tong, 1990).…”

“…The rapid phasedown was accompanied by a nearly 90% reduction of children's blood Pb (Pirkle et al, 1994). By 1986, (5-6) Â 10 6 t of Pb had been used in the USA as a petrol additive, and about 75% of this Pb was released into the atmosphere (Chaney and Mielke, 1986;Mielke and Reagan, 1998). Thus, in the USA, an estimated 4-5 million tons of Pb was deposited into the environment, especially in urbanized areas, by vehicle traffic using petrol containing Pb additives (Mielke, 1994).…”

Urban Geochemistry of Tallinn (Estonia): Major and Trace‐Elements Distribution in Topsoil

“…Environmental pollution in urban and industrial areas, as well as its negative impact on the health of habitants, is documented (Fregert, 1981;Mielke and Reagan, 1998;Vardaki and Kelepertsis, 1999;Brown et al, 2003). Many organic compounds and inorganic contaminants, including heavy metals and other potentially harmful elements, are emitted into the city atmosphere from factories and vehicles and other contributors to air pollution.…”