Soil Contamination in Areas Impacted by Military Activities: A Critical Review

Abstract

Military activities drastically affect soil properties mainly via physical/chemical disturbances during military training and warfare. The present paper aims to review (1) physical/chemical disturbances in soils following military activities, (2) approaches to characterization of contaminated military-impacted sites, and (3) advances in human health risk assessment for evaluating potential adverse impacts. A literature search mainly covering the period 2010–2020 but also including relevant selected papers published before 2010 was conducted. Selected studies (more than 160) were grouped as follows and then reviewed: ~40 on the presence of potentially toxic elements (PTEs), ~20 on energetic compounds (ECs) and chemical warfare agents (CWAs), ~40 on human health risk assessment, and generic limits/legislation, and ~60 supporting studies. Soil physical disturbances (e.g., compaction by military traffic) may drastically affect soil properties (e.g., hydraulic conductivity) causing environmental issues (e.g., increased erosion). Chemical disturbances are caused by the introduction of numerous PTEs, ECs, and CWAs and are of a wide nature. Available generic limits/legislation for these substances is limited, and their contents do not always overlap. Among numerous PTEs in military-impacted zones, Pb seems particularly problematic due to its high toxicity, abundance, and persistence. For ECs and CWAs, their highly variable physiochemical properties and biodegradability govern their specific distribution, environmental fate, and transport. Most site characterization includes proper spatial/vertical profiling, albeit without adequate consideration of contaminant speciation/fractionation. Human health risk assessment studies generally follow an agreed upon framework; however, the depth/adequacy of their use varies. Generic limits/legislation limited to a few countries do not always include all contaminants of concern, their content doesn’t overlap, and scientific basis is not always clear. Thus, a comprehensive scientific framework covering a range of contaminants is needed. Overall, contaminant speciation, fractionation, and mobility have not been fully considered in numerous studies. Chemical speciation and bioaccessibility, which directly affect the results for risk characterization, should be properly integrated into risk assessment processes for accurate results.

Ecological Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in Soil of Lagos State University, Epe, Lagos State, Nigeria

“…EF provides accurate assessment of heavy metals accumulation from anthropogenic sources [25,26] which was why it was carried out in this study. [22] which indicated that military activities did impact on the areas of activities zones.…”

“…The study demonstrated that Cd and Hg had higher levels of ecological risk for agricultural soil in Shanxi Province of China. Broomandi et al [22] worked on critical review of soil contamination in areas impacted by military activities. The work showed that heavy metals have been found in elevated concentrations in many military impacted zones.…”

Environmental Risk Assessment of Explosive Residues Toxicological Impact on Humans on the Former Combat Area

“…However, the article considers only one side of the problemthe assessment of the explosives effect on humans (children and adults) with only one route of exposureoral. The lack of data about the location of explosive objects in the soil of Donbas does not allow us fully assess their toxicological hazard to humans and the environment, although the literature indicates the dangerous effects of explosives (Pichtel, 2012, Broomandi et al, 2020. The problem of the toxicological impact of explosive residues on residents and the environment of Donbas remains relevant.…”

“…They are consumed by animals and humans and cause harm to them. As a result, war zones with intense conflicts, military training areas, shooting sports zones, explosives and ammunition manufacturing/disposal locations are considered among the major sources of contamination for terrestrial ecosystems (Broomandi et al 2020;Ryu, et al, 2007).…”

Physicochemical Gas–Solid Sorption Properties of Geologic Materials Using Inverse Gas Chromatography

“…Octane and heptane were used as nonpolar probe compounds. Dimethyl methylphosphonate (DMMP), which can be an environmental contaminant and has a representative structure of organophosphorus compounds (e.g., pesticides), was used as a polar probe compound. Note, in this paper, we use the word vapor to refer to a gas from a probe compound that is generally a liquid under ambient conditions.…”