Socio-economic determinants of iron production on Polish lands during antiquity

Abstract

Metallurgical activity of the peoples living in the area known as Germania Magna is characterized by an extensive and ad hoc nature which clearly is different from the centralized Roman production model. In the so-called Barbarian parts of Europe however, there were regions where there was a specialized and identifiably large mass production of iron. On Polish lands three such centres were active – in the Holy Cross Mountains, in West Masovia and in some regions of Silesia. The presence within a single cultural unit of several large metallurgical centres functioning on the basis of different organizational patterns is a unique phenomenon and warrants reflection upon the causes of their creation and the meaning of production for their neighbouring areas. These enormous logistical projects indicate the existence of yet unknown to us interdependent social structures of large work teams in the population, evident over a period of several generations. Their reconstruction can help us understand at least some aspects of the social and economic life on Polish lands towards the end of antiquity.

First results of metallographic analysis and absolute dating of iron finds from Nowe Brzesko, site 26, Proszowice District

“…As mentioned above, the methods applied also offer wider analytical possibilities than just the possibility of precise dating of individual objects. Taking into account the regionalisation of iron production within the Przeworsk culture (Orzechowski, 2018(Orzechowski, , 2019, and the importance of known production centres for the economy of the entire area of the Przeworsk culture, the possibility to study the provenance of individual iron objects taking into account their dating opens up completely new research areas. Their development over time can significantly help to understand economic and social relations in the Vistula basin.…”

Limonite deposit at the Mikniškiai settlement site (South Lithuania)

“…Here, the beginnings of indigenous metallurgy, as a separate and fully developed branch of economy, could be associated with the Przeworsk culture (the turn of the 2nd century BC-mid-5th century AD). Beside the main centres of the specialized metallurgy in the Swietokrzyskie Mountains, Masovia, and Silesia (Orzechowski 2018;2020), smelting was performed in some larger and several smaller regions, both in the Przeworsk culture and outside of its distribution area. Among them, there was a small iron smelting complex associated with the Bogaczewo culture in Masuria (Orzechowski 2018, 392;Szymański -Orzechowski 2021), of which the pottery of the Mikniškiai settlement, as well as many other Southern Lithuanian sites (Grižas -BitnerWróblewska 2007) shares cultural attributes.…”

Bloomery iron production in the Holy Cross Mountains (Poland) area during the Roman period: conditions during the metallurgical process and their uniformity between locations

“…Over time, the ability of smelting Fe spread worldwide, reaching present-day Poland in about the second century BC [18]. The oldest Fe mining centers in Poland are related to the period of Roman influence and include, among others, the Holy Cross Mountains, Mazovia, Silesia, and Wołów regions [19]. The period of Roman influence refers to the age covering the 3rd period of the Iron Age in the area of the so-called Barbaricum (including the area of today's Poland).…”

“…The Holy Cross Mountains region is the largest and best-known among Polish centers of ancient metallurgy thanks to the long-term research of Mieczyslaw Radwan, Kazimierz Bielenin, Szymon Orzechowski and others (e.g., [21,22]). During archaeological works, tap slags, iron products, remains of furnace walls, places of ore storage, charcoal production, and items indirectly related to metallurgical production, such as ceramics, ornaments, and coins, were found [19,21,23]. Based on archaeological findings, it was possible to date them from 100 BC to 350 AD (mainly based on found ceramics and coins).…”

“…Investigations in the area have revealed numerous remnants of former iron production in the form of smelter slags [21]. The region with the largest number of furnaces occupies an area of about 800 to 1000 km 2 [19]. About 8000 sites were discovered, with more than 550,000 furnaces.…”