Societal Impacts of Flood Hazards

Abstract

Floods remain the most devastating natural hazard globally, despite substantial investments in flood prevention and management in recent decades. Fluvial floods, such as the ones in Pakistan in 2010 and Thailand in 2011, can affect entire countries and cause severe economic and human losses. Also, coastal floods can inflict substantial harm owing to their destructive forces in terms of wave and tidal energy. A flood type that received growing attention in recent years is flooding from pluvial events (heavy rainfall). Even though these are locally confined, their sudden onset and unpredictability pose a danger to areas that are generally not at risk from flooding. In the future, it is projected that flood risk will increase in many regions both because of the effects of global warming on the hydrological cycle and the continuing concentration of people and economic assets in risk-prone areas. Floods have a large variety of societal impacts that span across space and time. While some of these impacts are obvious and have been well researched, others are more subtle and less is known about their complex processes and long-term effects. The most immediate and apparent impact of floods is direct damage caused by physical contact between floodwaters and economic assets, cultural heritage, or human beings, with the result for humans being injuries and deaths. Direct flood damage can amount to billions of US dollars for single events, such as the floods in the Danube and Elbe catchment in Central Europe in 2002 and 2013. More indirect economic implications are the losses that occur outside of the flood event in space and time, such as losses due to business disruption. The flood in Thailand in 2011, for instance, resulted in a lack of auto parts supplies and consequently the shutdown of car manufacturing within and outside the flood zone. Floods also have long-term indirect impacts on flood-affected people and communities. Experiencing property damage and losing important personal belongings can have a negative psychological effect on flood victims. Much less is known about this type of flood impact: how long do these impacts last? What makes some people or communities recover faster than others from financial losses and emotional stress? Moreover, flood impacts are not equally distributed across different groups of society. Often, poor, elderly, and marginalized societal groups are particularly vulnerable to the effects of flooding inasmuch as these groups generally have little social, human, and financial coping capacities. In many countries, women regularly bear a disproportionately high burden because of their societal status. Finally, severe floods often provide so-called windows of opportunities, enabling rapid policy change, resulting in new flood risk management policies. Such newly adopted policy arrangements can lead to societal conflicts over issues of interests, equity, and fairness. For instance, flood events often trigger large-scale investment in flood defense infrastructure, which are associated with high construction costs. Although these costs are usually borne by the taxpayer, often only a small proportion of society shares in their benefits. In addition, societal conflict can arise concerning where to build structural measures; what impacts these measures have on the ground regarding economic development potentials, different kinds of uses, and nature protection; and which effects are expected downstream. In such controversies, issues of participation and decision making are central and often highly contested. While floods are usually associated with negative societal impacts in industrialized countries, they also have beneficial impacts on nature and society. In many parts of the world, the livelihood of millions of people depends on the recurring occurrence of flooding. For instance, farming communities in or near floodplains rely upon regular floodwaters that carry nutrients and sediments, enriching the soil and making it fertile for cultivation.

The behavioral turn in flood risk management, its assumptions and potential implications

“…Furthermore, a core epistemological limitation with very practical implications results from the research being overwhelmingly focused on understanding the effectiveness of measures in monetary terms, for example, looking at the physical capabilities of the measures themselves. We know there are a range of intangible or nonmonetary flood impacts (Bubeck, Otto, & Weichselgartner, 2017b), like psychological or mental health impacts (Foudi, Osés-Eraso, & Galarraga, 2017) or well-being losses (Hudson, Pham, & Bubeck, 2019c). Thieken et al (2016a) and Reiter, Wenzel, Dittmer, Lorenz, and Voss (2018) found that households can perceive psychological stress and recovery activities more seriously than financial losses.…”

An evaluation and monetary assessment of the impact of flooding on subjective well-being across genders in Vietnam

“…Floods can impact societies in multiple ways, ranging from the loss of life, injuries and mental health effects to the destruction of assets (Bubeck, Otto, & Weichselgartner, 2017), which results flooding being considered as the most significant natural hazard to affect humanity (UNISDR, 2011). Asia is especially prone to flood impactsfor example, a typhoon in November 2017 resulted in around 110 deaths and a monetary loss of 650 million USD across the Philippines and Vietnam (Munich Re, 2018).…”

“…The importance of documenting gender differences in disaster impacts has been recently highlighted (Cutter, 2017). Another shortcoming of the existing literature is its focus on industrialized countries, despite the fact that the majority of floodaffected people live in developing countries, mainly in Asia (Bubeck et al, 2017). Consequently, there is currently a lack of insights into the cross-comparability and transferability of the impacts of floods on SWB.…”

Flooding and Its Impact on Education

“…Flood water absorbed underground recharges the underground aquifers to supply fresh water to rivers, wells, dams, and lakes from flood water to the extent that many countries are dependent on aquifers for fresh water. Floods are an alternating source of that fresh water supply [11]. Ecosystems also depend on flood water which carries and deposits nutrients rich in sediments that support both the plant and animal life of wetlands [12].…”