Social determinants of violence against women in Panama: results from population-based cross-sectional studies and a femicide registry

Abstract

Background We aimed to investigate the prevalence of violence against women (VAW) in Panama and its association with social determinants of health (SDH) and to estimate the femicide rates from 2014 to 2017. Methods Data were derived from three cross-sectional population-based studies. Logistic regression models were used to estimate the association between SDH and VAW, expressed as odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Age-standardized femicide rates were estimated using data from the Public Ministry. Results Compared to the reference categories, women in the lowest quintile (Q) of income distribution (Q1: OR 4.0 [95% CI 1.4–11.7], Q2: OR 3.0 [95% CI 1.1–7.9]), divorced/separated women (OR 1.5 [95% CI 1.0–2.1]) and those in the age categories 25–33 y and 34–49 y (OR 1.9 [95% CI 1.2–3.1]) were more likely to have experienced violence in the past year. Indigenous ethnicity (OR 2.3 [95% CI 1.3–4.1]), age 15–19 y (OR 1.8 [95% CI 1.1–2.9]) and lowest education levels (very low: OR 4.7 [95% CI 1.4–15.5]; low: OR 4.5 [95% CI 1.4–14.6]) were associated with permissive attitudes towards violence. Indigenous (OR 2.7 [95% CI 1.3–6.1]), Afro-Panamanians (OR 3.1 [95% CI 1.3–7.6]) and education level (low: OR 2.5 [95% CI 1.2–4.9]; medium: OR 3.0 [95% CI 1.4–6.6]) were associated with physical/sexual intimate partner violence. Standardized adjusted femicide rates (×100 000) from 2015 to 2017 were 1.5, 0.9 and 0.8, respectively. Conclusions Our findings highlight the importance of prevention programmes.

Prevalence and sociogeographical inequalities of violence against women in Ecuador: a cross-sectional study

“…This result is different from previous data from Ecuador where both a higher prevalence of physical and sexual IPV was reported among Indigenous women [ 6 ]. In the study from Panama, physical or sexual IPV were more common among Indigenous [ 36 ], which contradicts our results. A Mexican study reported that societies with an Indigenous minority had higher prevalence of IPV in comparison to societies that were exclusively Indigenous, indicating that being part of a minority group can be a risk factor for VAW [ 38 ].…”

“…Non-partner sexual violence in younger ages seems to be a common finding [ 6 , 12 , 13 , 35 ] with the perpetrator typically a family member or a male known to the victim [ 35 ]. Although age was not associated with IPV in the Bolivian study [ 14 ], it played a role in a recent study from Panama [ 36 ] where younger women reported more frequently physical or verbal violence by any perpetrator during the past year. The role of age as an associated factor seems to be very contextual and related to the type of violence, with studies showing no association [ 14 ], higher risk among youth [ 26 , 36 ] or among older age groups [ 6 ].…”

“…Although age was not associated with IPV in the Bolivian study [ 14 ], it played a role in a recent study from Panama [ 36 ] where younger women reported more frequently physical or verbal violence by any perpetrator during the past year. The role of age as an associated factor seems to be very contextual and related to the type of violence, with studies showing no association [ 14 ], higher risk among youth [ 26 , 36 ] or among older age groups [ 6 ]. Differences in social and individual tolerance to violence or in reporting among age groups due to increase awareness have been proposed as possible explanations [ 35 , 36 ].…”

“…The role of age as an associated factor seems to be very contextual and related to the type of violence, with studies showing no association [ 14 ], higher risk among youth [ 26 , 36 ] or among older age groups [ 6 ]. Differences in social and individual tolerance to violence or in reporting among age groups due to increase awareness have been proposed as possible explanations [ 35 , 36 ].…”

Global policies to reduce pandemic intensified violence against women

“…Social constructs that determine the risk of VAW include poverty, low educational obtainment, gender‐based social roles, lack of self‐determination of one's future, prioritization of food sharing in the family, as well as the literal value of a female in the form of a marital dowry (Skolnik, 2016 ). Loss of social supports and inadequate punitive measures for violent crimes are predictors of VAW (Merson et al., 2012 ; Santamaria et al., 2019 ), as well as alcohol and firearms use among males (Merson et al., 2012 ).…”