Social class shapes the form and function of relationships and selves

Carey, Rebecca M.; Markus, Hazel Rose

doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.08.031

Cited by 57 publications

(69 citation statements)

References 82 publications

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“…There are of course additional contextual factors (beyond sociohistorical and ontogenetic developmental contexts) not highlighted in the present paper that have significant implications for understanding social behavior and can also be theorized to operate via the mechanisms proposed in our model. For instance, education could be an important contextual factor that may influence both the individual's opportunity structure (since education has profound effects on the number and nature of available ties [58]) and the individual's capacities and motivations to take advantage of that social opportunity structure (e.g., by increasing cognitive abilities and shifting values).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

The Increasing Importance of Friendship in Late Life: Understanding the Role of Sociohistorical Context in Social Development

Fiori¹,

Windsor²,

Huxhold³

2020

Gerontology

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Historically, family ties have been understood as the primary source of support for aging adults, and past empirical and theoretical work has highlighted the tendency of older adults to focus on close family. However, in line with demographic changes and historical increases in the diversity of social structures, friendships are increasing in importance in recent generations of older adults. Given the powerful role of context in shaping these changes, this paper offers a conceptual analysis linking individual agency to sociohistorical context as a way to understand this increasing diversity of social ties. More specifically, we propose that the individual invests time and energy to form and maintain social ties, and that each individual has a specific social opportunity structure (all potential ties that are available to invest in, as well as the costs of those investments). Furthermore, this investment of time and energy is determined in part by individual differences in capacities and motivations. We argue that sociohistorical context influences this process in three important ways: (1) in its effect on the social opportunity structure; (2) in its direct effect on time and energy; and (3) in its effect on individuals' capacities and motivations. We believe that these mechanisms can account for the increasing diversity of social ties across adulthood, as well as the potential for future historical changes. © 2020 S. Karger AG, BaselHistorically, family ties have been understood as the primary source of support for aging adults, reflected in theoretical understandings of social development across adulthood and into late life (e.g., [1]) and in the policy emphasis placed on family caregiving in the United States [2]. However, due to demographic changes, such as increasing life expectancy [3], decreasing fertility rates [4], the "gray divorce revolution" [5], and greater geographical mobility [6], the structure and function of older adults' social networks are changing. In particular, it is our view that friendships are increasing in importance (i.e., greater prevalence, greater provision of support, etc.) in recent generations of older adults [7].Existing frameworks of friendship in late life (e.g., [8]), as well as more general models of social networks across the lifespan (e.g., Convoy Model [9]), acknowledge the Friendship in Late Life

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

The Increasing Importance of Friendship in Late Life: Understanding the Role of Sociohistorical Context in Social Development

Fiori¹,

Windsor²,

Huxhold³

2020

Gerontology

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“…Everyday realities of people in these settings not only grant them choices about how to live their lives, but also encourage them to express themselves through the choices they make. When local realities readily afford easy exercise of choice, everything—including relationships (Adams, Anderson, & Adonu, ; Carey & Markus, )—can be a matter of choice. People experience freedom to exercise this choice to contract relationships that provide optimal opportunities for self‐expansion (Aron, Aron, Tudor, & Nelson, ; Aron, Lewandowski, Mashek, & Aron, ).…”

Section: Neoliberalism Impacts Psychological Experiencementioning

confidence: 99%

The Psychology of Neoliberalism and the Neoliberalism of Psychology

Adams

Estrada-Villalta

Sullivan

et al. 2019

Journal of Social Issues

Self Cite

190

199

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In this article, we approach the relationship between neoliberalism and psychological science from the theoretical perspective of cultural psychology. In the first section, we trace how engagement with neoliberal systems results in characteristic tendencies-including a radical abstraction of self from social and material context, an entrepreneurial understanding of self as an ongoing development project, an imperative for personal growth and fulfillment, and an emphasis on affect management for self-regulation-that increasingly constitute the knowledge base of mainstream psychological science. However, as we consider in the second section, psychological science is not just an observer of neoliberalism and its impact on psychological experience. Instead, by studying psychological processes independent of cultural-ecological or historical context and by championing individual growth and affective regulation as the key to optimal well-being, psychological scientists reproduce and reinforce the influence and authority of neoliberal systems. Rather than a disinterested bystander, hegemonic forms of psychological science are thoroughly implicated in the neoliberal project.

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“…Yet people from working-class contexts are less likely both to understand relationships in this way and to be guided by this independent style of enacting relationships (Belmi & Laurin, 2016). For example, Carey and Markus (2017) show that whereas people in middle-class contexts often view relationships as an individual choice (e.g., connections can be severed if they are not beneficial), people in working-class contexts often reject this self-interested understanding of relationships and instead view relationships as an enduring part of who they are. Indeed, in working-class contexts, in which people are often guided by an interdependent style of interpersonal interaction, using relationships solely for personal gain would be seen as distasteful or inauthentic (Williams, 2017).…”

Section: Sites Of Cultural Mismatchmentioning

confidence: 99%

Social-Class Disparities in Higher Education and Professional Workplaces: The Role of Cultural Mismatch

Stephens

Townsend

Dittmann

2018

Curr Dir Psychol Sci

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Differences in structural resources and individual skills contribute to social-class disparities in both U.S. gateway institutions of higher education and professional workplaces. People from working-class contexts also experience cultural barriers that maintain these disparities. In this article, we focus on one critical cultural barrier—the cultural mismatch between (a) the independent cultural norms prevalent in middle-class contexts and U.S. institutions and (b) the interdependent norms common in working-class contexts. In particular, we explain how cultural mismatch can fuel social-class disparities in higher education and professional workplaces. First, we explain how different social-class contexts tend to reflect and foster different cultural models of self. Second, we outline how higher education and professional workplaces often prioritize independence as the cultural ideal. Finally, we describe two key sites of cultural mismatch—norms for understanding the self and interacting with others—and explain their consequences for working-class people’s access to and performance in gateway institutions.

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Social class shapes the form and function of relationships and selves

Cited by 57 publications

References 82 publications

The Increasing Importance of Friendship in Late Life: Understanding the Role of Sociohistorical Context in Social Development

The Increasing Importance of Friendship in Late Life: Understanding the Role of Sociohistorical Context in Social Development

The Psychology of Neoliberalism and the Neoliberalism of Psychology

Social-Class Disparities in Higher Education and Professional Workplaces: The Role of Cultural Mismatch

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