Social agency and prestige technology: serial production of gold appliqués in the early Iron Age north-west China and the Eurasian steppes

Art historical and archaeometric analyses of the ‘animal style’ gold and silver ornaments (fourth–third centuries bce) found in north‐west China

“…In our study of the gold appliqués decorated with rams' heads (XGM1:29) and crouching tigers (XGM1:23 and XGM1:27) found in the Xigou M1 (fourth-third centuries BCE) at Balikun, we found the presence of slip bands, as clearly seen in the SEM images, which indicate that coldworking with a plastic deformation occurred after annealing (Liu, et al, 2021b).These features were common in the shaping of the other six gold appliqués with rams' heads (XGM1:5,7,8,11,41 and 48), as shown in the current analysis, indicating the similar craftworking tradition. Although slip bands were not identified in the microstructure of the gold and silver plaques from Dongheigou M12 (Figures 5,c,f,and 6,d), cold-working is still the only possible shaping technology for creating the raised animal figures on the Xigou appliqués.…”

“…In north-west China, the use of the mould-pressing technology first appeared in the decoration of gold appliqués in the form of snow leopards (Figure 11, a) and wild boars in Dongtalede cemetery (ninth-seventh centuries BCE) in the Xinjiang Altai region (Xinjiang Institute of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology, 2013). Both their manufacturing techniques and zoomorphic iconographies shared some common features with those mould-pressed gold plaques found in the Eurasian steppe, including Arzhan I and II in Tuva and those of Eleke saz, Taldy II, Issyk, Shilikty and Taksai located in south Siberia and Central Asia (Akishev, 1978;Armbruster, 2009;Chugunov, 2015;Chugunov et al, 2010;Liu, et al, 2021a;Liu, et al, 2021b;Onggaruly, 2018;Xinjiang Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, 2013;Yu & Ma, 2013). Meanwhile, cold-worked and annealed bronze armour and chariot pieces were occasionally found in noble tombs from the Eastern Zhou period (eighth-third centuries BCE) in the provinces of Hubei, Gansu and Shaanxi (Xiangfan Civic Archaeology Institute et al, 2005;Hubei Provincial Archaeology Institute, Suizhou Museum, 2014;Qian, 2002;Shao et al, 2015;Shaanxi Provincial Archaeology Institute et al, 2007, 2010.…”

“…During the examination, the surface appeared very smooth, and no hammering or chasing marks were found on the back of the appliqués XGM1:7 (Figure 8, b) and XGM1:8 (Figure 8, d, e). Several slip bands as evidence of cold‐working could be observed on the surface of the reverse side (Figure 8, c, f), represented by regularly oriented parallel lines (Liu, et al, 2021b). Here, the roughness of the metal surface, with traces of tool marks due to polishing on the outer surface of XGM1:11 (Figure 9, a), can also be seen; such traces of polishing were more evident in the SEM image of XGM1: 48 (Figure 9, d).…”

“…It provided form and ornamentation simultaneously, facilitating the production of the series of objects with identical decorations. In Dongtalede cemetery, hundreds of gold appliqués in the form of snow leopards were found buried with the deceased, and many of them were made with the same mould or die (Liu, et al, 2021b; Yu & Ma, 2013).…”

“…Concerning their production, a range of new technologies at the time, such as repoussé, hammering, carving, granulation and filigree, were employed during the manufacturing process (Huang & Chen, 2013;Liu, et al, 2021aLiu, et al, , 2021bTan et al, 2016). Some metallurgic analyses have demonstrated that the gold products unearthed from Xigoupan Tomb 2, the Nianfangqu and Shihuigou sites in Inner Mongolia, and the Majiayuan cemetery in Gansu province had similar elemental compositions, which has led some scholars to conclude that the same metal source was used (Huang, 2019;Wang & Harutaro, 2015).…”