Social Acknowledgment of Violent Experiences and Its Role in PTSD and Appetitive Aggression Among High-Risk Males in South Africa

Abstract

Violence exposure poses a risk for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and appetitive aggression. Does acknowledgment of violent experiences by one’s social environment also affect these adverse consequences of violence? We investigated relations between number of traumatic event types, number of violent offenses, PTSD symptoms, appetitive aggression, and social acknowledgment. A total of 290 participants were recruited through a Cape Town rehabilitation center for offenders. Using path analysis, we demonstrate higher societal disapproval to be associated with more intense PTSD symptoms and greater appetitive aggression. However, past experiences of recognition were also related to more intense PTSD symptoms. Violence exposure was positively associated with PTSD symptoms and appetitive aggression, and a higher number of violent offenses was related to greater appetitive aggression. Results indicate that besides violence exposure, social acknowledgment may play a significant role in the severity of PTSD and appetitive aggression. Intervention programs should not neglect targeting social structures.

Associations between societal disapproval and changes in symptoms of PTSD and appetitive aggression following treatment among high-risk South African males

“…Recently – and in line with research demonstrating that social exclusion and rejection are associated with aggressive behaviour (DeWall, Twenge, Gitter, & Baumeister, 2009; Twenge, Baumeister, Tice, & Stucke, 2001) – Sommer et al (2017b) found a positive association between general disapproval and appetitive aggression, a type of aggression which is perceived as self-rewarding rather than reactive (Elbert, Moran, & Schauer, 2017) and thus potentially fuels the cycle of violence in already violent environments such as low-income communities in South Africa. In contrast, recognition and family disapproval were found to be unrelated to appetitive aggression.…”

“…surroundings with many potential traumatic events) could be a breeding ground for appetitive aggression, as confirmed by a positive association between traumatic events and appetitive aggression (Sommer et al, 2017b). Furthermore, as violence perpetration increases, aggression may be perceived more positively (Sommer et al, 2017b; Köbach et al, 2015; Weierstall et al, 2013).…”

“…surroundings with many potential traumatic events) could be a breeding ground for appetitive aggression, as confirmed by a positive association between traumatic events and appetitive aggression (Sommer et al, 2017b). Furthermore, as violence perpetration increases, aggression may be perceived more positively (Sommer et al, 2017b; Köbach et al, 2015; Weierstall et al, 2013). As a result, newly experienced traumatic events and newly committed offenses may rekindle an individual’s ‘addiction to violence’ (Hecker, Hermenau, Crombach, & Elbert, 2015) following the completion of a psychological treatment programme and thereby decrease the likelihood of a reduction in appetitive aggression.…”

“…the perception that one’s suffering is acknowledged and understood. Research has shown that general disapproval is associated with more severe PTSD symptoms (Sommer et al,, 2017a, 2017b; Jones, Mueller & Maercker, 2006; Mueller, Orth, Wang, & Maercker, 2009). In relation to family disapproval and recognition, the findings are more diverse, with results indicating that family disapproval is either positively associated with (Maercker & Müller, 2004) or unrelated to PTSD (Sommer et al, 2017b; Jones et al, 2006).…”

“…Research has shown that general disapproval is associated with more severe PTSD symptoms (Sommer et al,, 2017a, 2017b; Jones, Mueller & Maercker, 2006; Mueller, Orth, Wang, & Maercker, 2009). In relation to family disapproval and recognition, the findings are more diverse, with results indicating that family disapproval is either positively associated with (Maercker & Müller, 2004) or unrelated to PTSD (Sommer et al, 2017b; Jones et al, 2006). Recognition has been revealed to be either negatively related to (Maercker, Povilonyte, Lianova, & Pöhlmann, 2009) or unrelated to PTSD (Mueller, Moergeli, & Maercker, 2008); however, in a South African victim–offender population, a positive relationship between recognition and PTSD was found, as discussed in Sommer et al (2017b).…”