Smalt: An under-recognized pigment commonly used in historical period China

Yin, Xiang; Na, Xi; Jian-hua, Huang; Wang, Na; Lei, Yong; Fu, Qianli; Wang, Weifeng

doi:10.1016/j.jas.2018.11.008

Cited by 15 publications

(12 citation statements)

References 9 publications

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“…The increased XRF signal of potassium concomitant with the cobalt signal in painted enamels is a good indication of the use of smalt as a source of ‘European’ cobalt. This agrees with the results obtained for Japanese porcelain [ 18 , 19 , 20 ] as well as for paintings in China [ 94 ] and Japan [ 20 ]. The meticulousness of the dotted painting technique deposited on one or more backgrounds induces a complex stratigraphy of the enameled decoration.…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 91%

“…However, in this spot at least four crystalline phases (cassiterite, lead pyrochlore type 3, wollastonite, lead arsenate apatite plus amorphous carbon) and the amorphous silicate matrix are identified in the Raman spectrum. This confirms the use of a color palette prepared by prior mixing of coloring agents to obtain a wide range of colors, as practiced in European easel paintings, in accordance with the archival texts which say that about thirty colors became available for painted enamel decorations prepared by the imperial workshops [ 6 , 94 , 95 ].…”

Section: Resultssupporting

confidence: 74%

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The Technology Transfer from Europe to China in the 17th–18th Centuries: Non-Invasive On-Site XRF and Raman Analyses of Chinese Qing Dynasty Enameled Masterpieces Made Using European Ingredients/Recipes

Colomban

Gironda²,

Vangu

et al. 2021

Materials

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Two masterpieces of the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912 CE), one in gilded brass (incense burner) decorated with cloisonné enamels stylistically attributed to the end of the Kangxi Emperor’s reign, the other in gold (ewer offered by Napoleon III to the Empress as a birthday present), decorated with both cloisonné and painted enamels bearing the mark of the Qianlong Emperor, were non-invasively studied by optical microscopy, Raman microspectroscopy and X-ray microfluorescence spectroscopy (point measurements and mapping) implemented on-site with mobile instruments. The elemental compositions of the metal substrates and enamels are compared. XRF point measurements and mappings support the identification of the coloring phases and elements obtained by Raman microspectroscopy. Attention was paid to the white (opacifier), blue, yellow, green, and red areas. The demonstration of arsenic-based phases (e.g., lead arsenate apatite) in the blue areas of the ewer, free of manganese, proves the use of cobalt imported from Europe. The high level of potassium confirms the use of smalt as the cobalt source. On the other hand, the significant manganese level indicates the use of Asian cobalt ores for the enamels of the incense burner. The very limited use of the lead pyrochlore pigment (European Naples yellow recipes) in the yellow and soft green cloisonné enamels of the Kangxi incense burner, as well as the use of traditional Chinese recipes for other colors (white, turquoise, dark green, red), reinforces the pioneering character of this object in technical terms at the 17th–18th century turn. The low level of lead in the cloisonné enamels of the incense burner may also be related to the use of European recipes. On the contrary, the Qianlong ewer displays all the enameling techniques imported from Europe to obtain a painted decoration of exceptional quality with the use of complex lead pyrochlore pigments, with or without addition of zinc, as well as cassiterite opacifier.

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 91%

Section: Resultssupporting

confidence: 74%

The Technology Transfer from Europe to China in the 17th–18th Centuries: Non-Invasive On-Site XRF and Raman Analyses of Chinese Qing Dynasty Enameled Masterpieces Made Using European Ingredients/Recipes

Colomban

Gironda²,

Vangu

et al. 2021

Materials

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“…In this respect, Bohemia is mentioned much less frequently (Dayton 1981; Delamare 2009; Förster 2018; Xia et al . 2019), although particularly the sites of Soví huť (German: Eulenhütte) and Horní Blatná (German: Bergstadt Platten) are typically associated with the name of Christopher Schürer, who is considered to be the discoverer of smalt production technology (Drahotová 1980).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Smalt production in the Ore Mountains: Characterization of samples related to the production of blue pigment in Bohemia

2020

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The study deals with the chemical composition of samples related to the production of a blue pigment/smalt. The samples examined come from the regions of Soví huť and Horní Blatná (north‐west Bohemia) dating to the 16th and 17th centuries. These locations are often mentioned in relation to the discoverer of smalt production technology: Christopher Schürer. The aim of the study is to evaluate the chemical composition of samples from both localities as well as with respect to the ores occurring in the given regions. The samples can be divided into two basic groups. The first clearly represents smalt (potassium glass coloured with cobalt), while the second apparently constitutes the samples of the so‐called ‘speiss’ (an aluminosilicate mass with metallic compounds). The analysis of the smalt confirmed the representation of minor elements bismuth and nickel (always) and uranium and molybdenum (rarely), which are found in Co ores from the Ore Mountains. The paper is the first to present the composition of actual blue pigment finds originating directly from the production sites, while the available literature has so far only reported the results of analyses of the pigments already used when referring to the Ore Mountains.

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“…Polarized light microscope (Carl Zeiss Axio Scope A1, Germany) was used to identify the species of the wooden stick (SHZ4), straws (SHZ3) and the raw material used in making the paper costumes (CQY5 and FXL4) and decorations (CQY2 and CQY3), as well as determine the deep blue pigment applied in dyeing CQY3. The samples were prepared in two different ways: the fiber samples were colored with Herzberg's stain [5] (I 2 -ZnCl 2 solution) and separated by needle before observation; the pigment sample was collected from the original object by using needle and mounted on glass slide using mounting resin at 80-90 °C [6].…”

Section: Polarized Light Microscope (Plm)mentioning

confidence: 99%

Analysis and characterization of materials used in heritage theatrical figurines

et al. 2020

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The precious collections of the Qing Dynasty paper-made theatrical figurines known as Shage xiren (纱阁戏人) represent a unique type of Chinese traditional folk art. The name, "Shage xiren" can be explained as the theatrical figurines that display in gauze curtains covered showcases. There were originally 36 showcases of Shage xiren of which 34 are preserved with 28 showcases exhibited at Qingxu Taoist Temple of Pingyao and the other damaged 6 are kept in the storeroom. It is rare that ancient paper-made figurines can be retained; therefore Shage xiren became a valuable source for understanding the traditional folk art as well as exploring rarely inherited crafts. Due to the material specificity and the poor preservation conditions, most of the figurines are found with various damages. It appears necessary to carry out appropriate conservative and restorative actions. To date, very few works have been reported on investigating the materials and crafts of making Shage xiren, resulting in a lack of basis for restoration. In this research, the samples collected from the damaged figurines, including wooden stick, plant fibers, paper pieces, clay fragments and textile fibers were studied. Polarized light microscope, X-ray diffraction, granulometry, Raman spectrum, digital microscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectrum analyses were employed to characterize the materials used in producing the cultural relics. The results indicated that not only paper, but also various materials were utilized in making the figurines. To form well-shaped bodies, the figurines have moso bamboo sticks applied as supporting structures, then covered with wheat straw and filled with natural cotton. The paper costumes and decorations were made from coniferous wood pulp and bamboo fibers respectively, and the textile belts were made from silk. The heads, feet and fingers of the figurines were shaped with fine local clay mixed with natural fibers to prevent cracking. The heads were further applied with lime to improve the surface smoothness and brightness. The pigments of red lead, basic lead carbonate, indigo and artificial ultramarine were used in painting and dyeing the clay heads and feet, and paper decorations. Although the figurines were made from accessible materials, the ingenious design and the sophisticated skills combining sculpturing, paper folding and elaborate ornamenting made it one of the unique artefacts. This research further provided reliable evidence in guiding the conservation and restoration work.

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Smalt: An under-recognized pigment commonly used in historical period China

Cited by 15 publications

References 9 publications

The Technology Transfer from Europe to China in the 17th–18th Centuries: Non-Invasive On-Site XRF and Raman Analyses of Chinese Qing Dynasty Enameled Masterpieces Made Using European Ingredients/Recipes

The Technology Transfer from Europe to China in the 17th–18th Centuries: Non-Invasive On-Site XRF and Raman Analyses of Chinese Qing Dynasty Enameled Masterpieces Made Using European Ingredients/Recipes

Smalt production in the Ore Mountains: Characterization of samples related to the production of blue pigment in Bohemia

Analysis and characterization of materials used in heritage theatrical figurines

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