Small-scale Farmer Pesticide Knowledge and Practice and Impacts on the Environment and Human Health in Ethiopia

Abstract

Background. Inappropriate use and application of pesticides in Ethiopia pose a major threat to the health of farmers and the environment. Objective. The present study aimed to assess the level of knowledge, attitudes, and practices of small-scale vegetable farmers towards the use of pesticides in Ethiopia along the Lake Ziway watershed. Methods. This was a cross-sectional study involving a total of 210 farmers randomly selected during a period of pesticide application from a purposively selected village located in the immediate vicinity of Lake Ziway, Ethiopia. Data were generated through structured in-depth interviews and on-site observations on farms. A Chi-square test was applied to evaluate whether the collected data and their probable associations were significant. Results. World Health Organization (WHO) class II pesticides (moderately toxic) were the most frequently used pesticides in the study area. There was no reported use of WHO classes 1a and 1b and banned or restricted pesticides such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and endosulfan. Most (92%) farmers reported indiscriminately disposing of empty containers in the field, while 86.7% applied the leftover pesticides to other crops. More than 90% of small-scale farmers did not use any personal protective equipment (PPE) when handling pesticides. About 95% of farmers had poor knowledge regarding pesticides. A significant association (p < 0.001) was observed between the knowledge of farmers and their practices related to pesticides. Conclusions. Generally, the knowledge of small-scale farmers on pesticides was poor. Moreover, the inappropriate disposal of pesticides and pesticide containers poses a risk to the environment. The findings of the present study underline the need to train farmers concerning the safe and proper use of pesticides to mitigate hazards to human health and the environment. Participant Consent. Obtained Ethics Approval. The study was granted an exemption from requiring ethics approval from the Hawassa University College of Natural and Computational Science, Research and Review Committee. Competing Interests. The authors declare no competing financial interests.

Pesticide residue levels in surface water, using a passive sampler and in the sediment along the littoral zone of Lake Ziway at selected sites

“…A possible explanation for the occurrence of this fungicide that accumulated on the HP-20 passive sampler could be the spray drift during aerial application of pesticides on vegetables, which is a common practice in the study area. The concentration of metalaxyl in HP-20 resin deployed at sampling site 2 (near floriculture enterprise) was significantly lower than the other sampling sites, where intensive vegetable farming activities by small scale farmers (S1 S4 and S5, sampling sites), this was probably that improper use and over the use of pesticides (including metalaxyl) by small scale farmers in the area [4,5,7].…”

“…A survey study conducted along Lake Ziway showed that intensive use of metalaxyl was reported by small-scale farmers [7], which might be a reason for the presence of metalaxyl in such a high concentration. A possible explanation for the occurrence of this fungicide that accumulated on the HP-20 passive sampler could be the spray drift during aerial application of pesticides on vegetables, which is a common practice in the study area.…”

“…To our knowledge, this is the first study that has reported boscalid detections in the sediment of Ethiopian lakes. The frequent application of fungicides by small scale vegetable farmers around lake Ziway (typically 15-20 applications per season [5,7]) is reflected by the consistent presence of boscalid creating a relatively constant source of these chemicals to Lake Ziway that receive drainage or irrigation return flow from treated vegetable farmlands along the littoral of Lake Ziway. Few studies have addressed the bioaccumulation potential of currently used pesticides (CUPs) compared with historic use pesticides (HUPs), likely resulting from a combination of the low octanol-water partition coefficients (log Kow) and short environmental persistence of these chemicals.…”

“…The reason for the high accumulation of metalaxyl in the HP-20 Passive sampler deployed in Lake Ziway than other pesticides is unclear, needs further study. Probably it could be the high concentration of metalaxyl due to the intensive and overuse of the metalaxyl by small-scale frames around the watershed of Lake Ziway [5,7]. The other reason may be metalaxyl has a longer half-life in water (56 days) than boscalid and p,p′DDE (Table 4).…”

“…However, studies report the illegal use of DDT in small-scale irrigated farms in Ethiopia [4,5]. Moreover, in the Rift valley region of Ethiopia, intensively use of organophosphorus, pyrethroids, carbamides, and other currently used pesticides by small-scale and large-scale floriculture enterprises were common [6,7]. Moreover, studies conducted along the littoral of Lake Ziway by Megnesite et al [5] and Mergia et al [7] reported that lack of knowledge of small-scale farmers regarding pesticide use, pouring leftover pesticides in the field, improper disposal of empty containers directly into the lake water, and overdose of pesticides application in the region.…”