Skeletal biology over the life span: A view from the surfaces

Abstract

The biocultural interpretation of skeletal remains is based upon the foundation of skeletal biology. In this review we examine the current state of skeletal biology research outside of the mainstream anthropology literature. The focus is on the structural changes of bone development and growth, and modeling and repair in the four bone surfaces: periosteal, Haversian, endosteal, and trabecular. The pattern of skeletal changes is placed within the framework of the human life span. New perspectives and direction of research on the environmental, biological, and genetic influences on modeling and remodeling processes are discussed chronologically at each bone surface. Implications for biological anthropologists are considered. This approach emphasizes variation in skeletal biology as a dynamic record of development, maturity, and aging. Skeletal biology has taken on a central role in a range of research areas that pertain to living and past primates, including humans. In this review we aim to examine the current state of understanding of skeletal biology, linking the morphology and structural changes of bone development, growth, remodeling, and repair within, on, and between the four surfaces of bone: periosteal, cortical/haversian, endosteal, and trabecular. The pattern of changes is placed within the framework of the human life span. Of specific interest are the age-associated and bone surface-specific influences of hormonal changes, the molecular and biochemical microenvironment of bone, and the mechanical environment on bone density, geometry, and microarchitecture. These types of biological data intersect with skeletal growth, development, and bone maintenance. The variations and perturbations of these processes provide physical anthropologists the opportunities and tools to interpret biocultural and behavioral aspects of ancient and recent human groups, such as bone mass accrual during subadult years and bone loss in later years. This contribution to the anthropological skeletal biology literature underscores the highly dynamic nature of skeletal tissues. It references the growing recognition that the mechanical and nutrient environment strongly influences bone beginning in utero and continues throughout life. Our goal is not to provide an exhaustive review of the bone biology or related bioanthropology literature, but rather to provide research perspectives currently being explored by bone science outside of anthropology-specific literature, that contribute to the growing discussion of the such issues as development and aging. BONE ENVELOPES AND THEIR SURFACESBone is composed of two major compartments or envelopes in which modeling and remodeling occur, namely periosteal and endocortical. These, in turn, have the following available surfaces: periosteal, intracortical, endosteal, and trabecular (Martin et al., 1998; see Fig. 1). The modeling process involves the independent actions of bone formation and bone resorption on different surfaces, whereas the remodeling process involves the sequentially sy...

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