“…Ever since William Justin Kroll first discovered a method of extracting metallic Ti from its ore in the 1940s, Ti has increasingly been used in industrial and commercial applications [62,63]. Ti and Ti alloys have been extensively used in a variety of industrial fields, such as the aerospace, nuclear, marine, biomedical, automotive, and chemical industries, as they have high specific strength, low density, good biocompatibility, high fatigue strength, and good corrosion resistance [64][65][66][67][68][69][70][71][72][73][74][75]. Ti and Ti alloys provide good biocompatibility and superior corrosion performance as they naturally develop an uninterrupted, adhesive, and thin oxide film across the entire surface [76][77][78][79][80].…”