Similarities between the effect of SARS-CoV-2 and HCV on the cellular level, and the possible role of ion channels in COVID19 progression: a review of potential targets for diagnosis and treatment

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has prompted an urgent need to identify effective medicines for the prevention and treatment of the disease. A comparative analysis between SARS-CoV-2 and Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) can expand the available knowledge regarding the virology and potential drug targets against these viruses. Interestingly, comparing HCV with SARS-CoV-2 reveals major similarities between them, ranging from the ion channels that are utilized, to the symptoms that are exhibited by patients. Via this comparative analysis, and from what is known about HCV, the most promising treatments for COVID-19 can focus on the reduction of viral load, treatment of pulmonary system damages, and reduction of inflammation. In particular, the drugs that show most potential in this regard include ritonavir, a combination of peg-IFN, and lumacaftor-ivacaftor. This review anaylses SARS-CoV-2 from the perspective of the role of ion homeostasis and channels in viral pathomechanism. We also highlight other novel treatment approaches that can be used for both treatment and prevention of COVID-19. The relevance of this review is to offer high-quality evidence that can be used as the basis for the identification of potential solutions to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Microbial co-infections in COVID-19: Associated microbiota and underlying mechanisms of pathogenesis

“…But ART-naïve patients show acute COVID-19 clinical representation [ 121 ]. Higher maximum body temperatures, longer duration of fever and longer improvement time of chest CT image was reported due to co-infection [ 122 ] HCV Body fluid Yes Both SARS-CoV-2 E and HCV p7 proteins can form similar ion channels which ensure their success in attacking their host and effective replication during co-infection [ 123 ]. The actual outcome is not reported till date.…”

“… Rhinovirus Respiratory Yes Major disease-causing rhinovirus serotype HRV-A16 infection upregulates ACE2 and TMPRSS2 expression in epithelial cells by inducing by IFNb1. This event facilitates SARS-CoV-2 transmission and further disease severity [ 125 ] One case has been reported in a young patient expressing critical illness as the outcome of co-infection [ 126 ] Adenovirus Respiratory Yes Similar ion channel forming capability of SARS-CovV-2 E and Adenovirus 6 K proteins facilitates co-infection [ 123 ] Unfavorable prognostic outcome including ARDS [ 127 ] Bacterial Streptococcus pneumoniae Respiratory Yes Opportunistic normal flora of human upper respiratory track Severe respiratory distress followed by pleural effusion and necrotizing pneumonia [ 128 ], higher mortality rate [ 129 ] Staphylococcus aureus Respiratory/Digestive/Contact Yes Opportunistic normal flora of human upper respiratory track, gut mucosa and skin Necrotizing pneumonia [ 130 ]. Bacteremia and higher mortality [ 131 ] Pseudomonas aeruginosa Contact Yes Opportunistic pathogen causing HAI mostly related with poor hygiene, mechanical ventilation and urinary catheterization.…”

Elucidating of oxidative distress in COVID-19 and methods of its prevention

“…All the above-mentioned arguments and examples suggest lycopene can be used for the treatment and prevention of COVID-19 [[ 90 ]].…”

Calprotectin in viral systemic infections—COVID-19 versus hepatitis C virus

“…There are biological and clinical similarities between HCV and COVID-19. Most of the current information comes from extrapolation of the results obtained in studying the SARS-CoV and the MERS pandemic [ 32 ]. Important similarities are the induction of channelopathies as a pathologic mechanism, the involvement of T helper lymphocytes (in the carcinogenesis of HCV and in the cytokine dysregulation associated with the early stage of SARS-CoV infection) and the response to interferon therapy.…”