Ships without crews: IMO and UK responses to cybersecurity, technology, law and regulation of maritime autonomous surface ships (MASS)

Abstract

This article considers the current technological developments in uncrewed Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS), examines the legal and regulatory challenges that they raise, and describes the ways in which an international body (the International Maritime Organization, IMO) and a national agency (UK Maritime and Coastguard Agency, MCA) are engaging with the massive task of regulating this new development in shipping. To achieve the research aim, the article combines primary data from interviews with industry, government and international regulators, a survey completed by practitioners, experts and academics working in the field, and relevant secondary sources. The article makes an original contribution by noting and analyzing the approaches of the IMO and the UK government–bodies which are highly influential in shaping global attitudes, preparation, adoption and responses to such innovative technologies like MASS–and how they have engaged with the difficult question of regulating the various legal, technical and cybersecurity challenges that they raise. It concludes that for the MASS technology to fulfill its potential and gradually see the integration of such vessels in international shipping in a safe, secure and sustainable way, the international community needs to work together, and update by consensus the key legal instruments and policy documents. In this major task, the UK approach and IMO's leading role can play a protagonist role in developing best practice and implementing respectively.

Preventing Catastrophic Cyber–Physical Attacks on the Global Maritime Transportation System: A Case Study of Hybrid Maritime Security in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore

“…(b) Whereas this article will not discuss emerging technology such as autonomous vessels, which is discussed at length elsewhere [20,21,51], there is broad consensus that a convergence of IT and OT systems is occurring. Also, that crews are increasingly reliant on sophisticated interconnected bridge systems for navigation and monitoring of critical systems and while there is awareness of attacks on the maritime sector at a management/strategic level, there is a lack of preparedness or maturity with regard to cyber hygiene and cybersecurity among "understaffed and overworked" [52,53] ships' crews, who see their primary function as sailing the ship.…”

“…In the words of UNCTAD: "beyond cleaner fuels, the industry needs to move faster towards digital solutions like AI and blockchain to improve efficiency as well as sustainability" [12]. Enormous investment is being poured into developing autonomous ships [19][20][21][22][23][24], and other ways AI can be applied to the MTS [25,26]; such as improved ship design, streamlining work processes, automated monitoring of critical systems like engines, ballast and navigation, and optimised voyage planning, to name a few. While automation can improve efficiency, situational awareness, and safety, the increasing dependence on networks comprising sensors, communication, and Internet of Things (IoT) devices is driving a convergence of IT and OT.…”

Challenges for the Education and Training of Seafarers in the Context of Autonomous Shipping: Bibliometric Analysis and Systematic Literature Review

“…In their article, Fenton and Chapsos [21] look at the current technological developments in the field of the unmanned MASS, examine the legal and regulatory challenges they pose and describe how the intergovernmental bodies (IMO) are dealing with the daunting task of regulating this new development in the maritime sector. The authors conclude that the IMO, as the umbrella organization for maritime transport, must issue new regulations through conventions or other legal means.…”

Unmanned Cargo Vessels: A Working Paper

“…25 The authors explained that in autonomous, uncrewed vessels, "monitoring, communications, navigation, engines-all will depend on interconnected devices, sensors, machine learning, cameras, supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA), all digitized, and connected via electromagnetic communications capable of being hacked and overridden." 26 The article quotes a U.S. Coast Guard observer who stated, concerning cybersecurity aspects of autonomous ships, that "autonomous vessels will be prime targets for attack. Cybersecurity cannot be an afterthought."…”