Shifting Attention among Working Memory Representations: Testing Cue Type, Awareness, and Strategic Control

Abstract

It is well known that visual working memory (VWM) performance is modulated by attentional cues presented during encoding. Interestingly, retrospective cues presented after encoding, but prior to the test phase also improve performance. This improvement in performance is termed the retro-cue benefit. We investigated whether the retro-cue benefit is sensitive to cue type, whether participants were aware of their improvement in performance due to the retro-cue, and whether the effect was under strategic control. Experiment 1 compared the potential cueing benefits of abrupt onset retro-cues relying on bottom-up attention, number retro-cues relying on top-down attention, and arrow retro-cues, relying on a mixture of both. We found a significant retro-cue effect only for arrow retro-cues. In Experiment 2, we tested participants' awareness of their use of the informative retro-cue and found that they were aware of their improved performance. In Experiment 3, we asked whether participants have strategic control over the retro-cue. The retro-cue was difficult to ignore, suggesting that strategic control is low. The retro-cue effect appears to be within conscious awareness but not under full strategic control.

The mental wormhole: Internal attention shifts without regard for distance

“…On the face of it, the retro-cue appears to be largely an endogenous shift of internal attention. However, recent findings indicate that purely exogenous (abrupt onset retro-cues) and purely endogenous (number retro-cues mapped to a spatial location) cues do not elicit a retro-cue benefit; instead endogenous/exogenous hybrids such as arrow retro-cues are required (Berryhill et al, 2011). It is also essential to note that the retro-cue paradigm and associated attentional cuing effects are distinct from Sperling's classic partial report research because the timing is well beyond the defined limits of iconic memory (<500 ms) (Sperling, 1960).…”

“…Berryhill et al (2011) reported no retro-cue benefit when the number or peripheral retro-cues were used, even though these cues induce shifts of perceptual attention. Makovski and Jiang (2007) also noted behavioral differences while using single or multiple retro-cues to indicate one or more locations.…”

“…The cuing literature has recently expanded after several published reports demonstrating that spatial cues presented after encoding improve VWM performance, even though no new information is provided to the participant (Berryhill, Richmond, Shay, & Olson, 2011;Dell'Acqua, Sessa, Toffanin, Luria, & Jolicoeur, 2010;Delvenne, Cleeremans, & Laloyaux, 2010;Griffin & Nobre, 2003;Landman, Spekreijse, & Lamme, 2003;Lepsien, Griffin, Devlin, & Nobre, 2005;Lepsien & Nobre, 2006;Lepsien & Nobre, 2007;Lepsien, Thornton, & Nobre, 2011;Makovski & Jiang, 2007;Makovski, Sussman, & Jiang, 2008;Matsukura, Luck, & Vecera, 2007;Nobre, 2008;Nobre, Rao, & Chelazzi, 2006;Sligte, Scholte, & Lamme, 2008Sligte, Vandenbroucke, Scholte, & Lamme, 2010;Sligte, Wokke, Tesselaar, Scholte, & Lamme, 2011;Vandenbroucke, Sligte, & Lamme, 2011). In other words, spatial precues can shift attention to possible future targets, and spatial retro-cues can shift attention to the representations of items currently stored in VWM.…”

“…The retro-cue paradigm's longer delay interval (>900 ms) ensures that the cues are operating on the contents of VWM rather than on the icon. Across a variety of stimuli, timing, and design parameters, a growing literature reports robust VWM performance improvements (~5-17 %) provided by retro-cuing (Berryhill et al, 2011;Dell'Acqua et al, 2010;Delvenne et al, 2010;Germeys et al, 2010;Griffin & Nobre, 2003;Landman et al, 2003;Lepsien et al, 2005;Lepsien & Nobre, 2006;Lepsien & Nobre, 2007;Lepsien et al, 2011;Makovski & Jiang, 2007;Makovski et al, 2008;Matsukura et al, 2007;Nobre, 2008;Nobre et al, 2006;Sligte et al, 2008Sligte et al, , 2009Sligte et al, 2010;Sligte et al, 2011;Vandenbroucke et al, 2011).…”

A bilateral advantage for maintaining objects in visual short term memory

“…Specifically, those studies have shown that directing attention to the location of one previously encoded stimulus using retrocues subsequently enhances the recall of that stimulus (Berryhill, Richmond, Shay & Olson, 2012;Delvenne, Cleeremans, & Laloyaux, 2010;Griffin & Nobre, 2003;Landman, Spekreijse & Lamme, 2003;Lepsien, Griffin, Devlin & Nobre, 2005;Lepsein & Nobre, 2006;Makovski & Jiang, 2007;Makovski, Sussman & Jiang, 2008;Matsukura, Luck & Veraca, 2007;Nobre et al, 2004;Tanoue & Berryhill, 2012;Tanoue, Jones, Peterson & Berryhill, 2013, amongst others). Recent electrophysiological evidence suggests that retro-cues promote the selective access of relevant VSTM representations and bias processing in favour of those representations (Kuo, Stokes & Nobre, 2012).…”