Shared and Unique Risk Factors Underlying Mathematical Disability and Reading and Spelling Disability

Abstract

High comorbidity rates have been reported between mathematical learning disabilities (MD) and reading and spelling disabilities (RSD). Research has identified skills related to math, such as number sense (NS) and visuospatial working memory (visuospatial WM), as well as to literacy, such as phonological awareness (PA), rapid automatized naming (RAN) and verbal short-term memory (Verbal STM). In order to explain the high comorbidity rates between MD and RSD, 7–11-year-old children were assessed on a range of cognitive abilities related to literacy (PA, RAN, Verbal STM) and mathematical ability (visuospatial WM, NS). The group of children consisted of typically developing (TD) children (n = 32), children with MD (n = 26), children with RSD (n = 29), and combined MD and RSD (n = 43). It was hypothesized that, in line with the multiple deficit view on learning disorders, at least one unique predictor for both MD and RSD and a possible shared cognitive risk factor would be found to account for the comorbidity between the symptom dimensions literacy and math. Secondly, our hypotheses were that (a) a probabilistic multi-factorial risk factor model would provide a better fit to the data than a deterministic single risk factor model and (b) that a shared risk factor model would provide a better fit than the specific multi-factorial model. All our hypotheses were confirmed. NS and visuospatial WM were identified as unique cognitive predictors for MD, whereas PA and RAN were both associated with RSD. Also, a shared risk factor model with PA as a cognitive predictor for both RSD and MD fitted the data best, indicating that MD and RSD might co-occur due to a shared underlying deficit in phonological processing. Possible explanations are discussed in the context of sample selection and composition. This study shows that different cognitive factors play a role in mathematics and literacy, and that a phonological processing deficit might play a role in the occurrence of MD and RSD.

Multiple skills underlie arithmetic performance: A large-scale structural equation modeling analysis

“…In addition, the connection between phonological abilities and retrieval of arithmetic facts can be based on a shared brain mechanism, the left angular gyrus (Dehaene et al, 2003). Our results suggest that impaired phonological awareness can partially explain the comorbidity between MD and RD, and in fact Slot, van Viersen, De Bree, and Kroesbergen (2016) found that impaired phonological awareness was a shared risk factor for pure MD, pure RD and partially explained the comorbidity between MD and RD.…”

“…Wilson et al (2015) examined RAN performance among RD and MD adults and found similar deficits in both groups. Two recent studies found RAN deficits in children with both MD and RD (Donker, Kroesbergen, Slot, Van Viersen, & De Bree, 2016;Slot et al, 2016). Moreover, other studies found that RAN deficit was a shared risk factor between ADHD and reading (McGrath et al, 2011;Shanahan et al, 2006).…”

Creativity as predictor of mathematical abilities in fourth graders in addition to number sense and working memory

“…Kroesbergen & Van Dijk, 2015;Toll et al, 2016). Of course, there are other domain general factors that influence mathematics, such as processing speed (e.g., Peterson et al, 2017;Willcutt et al, 2013), phonological skills (e.g., Barnes et al, 2014;Slot, Van Viersen, De Bree, & Kroesbergen, 2016), or other executive functions as inhibition and shifting (Friso- Van den Bos et al, 2013;. It is not yet clear how these variables are related to creativity, and further research could take these into account to get a more comprehensive understanding of the underlying factors of mathematics.…”

“…Working memory is a domain-general predictor, not only in mathematical development but also in other academic areas. Although several other cognitive factors have been related to math, such as processing speed (e.g., Peterson et al, 2017;Willcutt et al, 2013), or phonological skills (e.g., Barnes et al, 2014;Slot, Van Viersen, De Bree, & Kroesbergen, 2016), working memory and number sense together explain a substantial part of the variance in mathematics (e.g., 48-50% in Kroesbergen & Van Dijk, 2015; 24-28% in Toll, Kroesbergen, & Van Luit, 2016). These two factors are not only related to mathematics in typically developing (TD) children, but they have also repeatedly been found to explain differences between children with mathematical learning disabilities (MLD) and TD children (e.g., Geary, Hoard, Byrd-Craven, Nugent, & Numtee, 2007;Mazzocco, Feigenson, & Halberda, 2011;Mussolin, Mejias, & Noël, 2010;Piazza et al, 2010; Raghubar, jnc.psychopen.eu | 2363-8761 Barnes, & Hecht, 2010Schuchardt, Maehler, & Hasselhorn, 2008).…”

Factors That Influence Improvement in Numeracy, Reading, and Comprehension in the Context of a Numeracy Intervention

“…Evidence shows that reading and mathematical abilities are correlated, and in particular that reading and mathematical disabilities often show comorbidity (Miles et al, 2001; Fuchs et al, 2004; Dirks et al, 2008; Rubinsten, 2008; Slot et al, 2016). Moreover, children with comorbid mathematics and reading disabilities tend to do less well on mathematical tasks than children with mathematical disabilities without reading disabilities (Jordan and Montani, 1997; Jordan and Hanich, 2000; Jordan et al, 2003).…”