Sex Roles, Status, and the Need for Social Change

The intrapsychics of gender: A model of self-socialization.

“…It is expected that children with greater stereotype knowledge or rigidity will be more likely than other children to adopt same-gender attributes and to shun other-gender ones. Several studies have found the expected associations (e.g., Aubry et al, 1999; Liben & Bigler, 2002; Miller et al, 2006; Serbin et al, 1993). However, the associations are weak and inconsistent, most likely because this approach fails to satisfy the content match criterion.…”

“…Nonetheless, they attest to the promise of explicit measures for use with children. Studies have shown (a) that explicit self-perceptions of gender-typed attributes are predictable from explicit measures of gender identity (Fagot, Rodgers, & Leinbach, 2000; Martin & Little, 1990; Martin et al, 2002; Martin, Fabes, Hanish, Leonard, & Dinella, 2006; Ruble et al, 2007) and from explicit measures of gender stereotypes (Aubry, Ruble, & Silverman, 1999; Liben & Bigler, 2002; Martin, Fabes, Evans, & Wyman, 1999; Miller, Trautner, & Ruble, 2006; Serbin, Powlishta, & Gulko, 1993), (b) that explicit gender stereotypes are predictable from explicit self-perceptions (Liben & Bigler, 2002; Martin et al, 1995), and (c) that explicit gender identity is predictable from explicit self-perceptions (Egan & Perry, 2001). All of these effects reflected the operation of cognitive consistency or balance (i.e., gender identity and gender stereotypes predicted children's adoption of same-gender attributes, children projected their own attributes onto the same-sex gender collective, and children used their perceptions of same-gender attributes to estimate their gender typicality).…”

“…Sometimes more specialized lists are constructed. For example, the male-typed and female-typed lists might each be subdivided into occupations, activities, and traits (e.g., Aubry et al, 1999; Liben & Bigler, 2002; Miller et al, 2006; Serbin et al, 1993); sometimes the domain of personality traits is subdivided into desirable attributes versus undesirable attributes (e.g., Aubry et al, 1999). The lists (or sublists) are then presented to new participants, for whom stereotype knowledge and flexibility scores are calculated (for each list or sublist).…”

Gender Nonconformity, Sexual Orientation, and Dutch Adolescents’ Relationship with Peers

“…Behaving in gender nonconforming ways often has negative consequences for a person’s social relationships (Serbin, Powlishta, & Gulo, 1993). Children expect already at a young age that their peers display sex-typed behavior (behavior viewed as normative for the child’s biological sex); they are more tolerant to gender conforming peers and react more negatively to peers who do not exhibit gender stereotyped behavior, activities, appearance, or traits (e.g., Carver, Egan, & Perry, 2004; Egan & Perry, 2001; Ruble, Martin, & Berenbaum, 2006).…”