Sex roles and unwanted pregnancy in adolescent and adult women.

Abstract

Many women each year experience an unwanted pregnancy that creates stresses for them, for their partners and families, and for health professionals. Psychologists may be able to reduce the likelihood of unwanted pregnancy as well as contribute to a constructive resolution of the crisis associated with its occurrence. 'This article highlights factors that are often associated with contraceptive use and nonuse. 7 he effects of sex roles are considered, and it is shown that socialization in traditional sex roles contributes to ineffective contraceptive protection. Problems associated with the resolution of unwanted pregnancy are presented. The implications of the research for clinical practice are discussed in terms of prevention of unwanted pregnancy, decision making concerning resolution of pregnancy, and treatment of women following an unwanted pregnancy.Unwanted pregnancy, whether terminated by abortion or carried to term, can be stressful and troubling for the pregnant woman as well as for her partner, her parents, and involved health professionals (cf., Adler, 1979a). Each year a large number of women experience an unwanted pregnancy. In 1977, for example, 1.3 million legal abortions were performed in the United States (Forrest, Tietze, & Sullivan, 1978). It is more difficult to obtain a figure for the number of unwanted or unintended pregnancies resulting in birth, since pregnancy is likely to be redefined as "wanted" if it is to be carried to term.Psychologists can play a role in the prevention of unwanted pregnancy as well as contribute to a constructive resolution of the crisis associated with its occurrence. This article highlights the research on unwanted pregnancy and its resolution, with special focus on the impact of sex role expectations and sex role socialization. Issues that may arise in treatment settings relating to prevention of unwanted pregnancy and stresses associated with its occurrence are considered. Contraceptive Use/NonuseMuch of the research on contraceptive use and nonuse has been retrospective, comparing characteristics of women who have had an unwanted pregnancy with those who have avoided it. One must be cautious in attributing differences found between these groups to predisposing variables rather than to the experience or lack of experience of unwanted pregnancy. However, the results of the few prospective studies have been consistent with those of the retrospective studies. PERSONALITY VARIABLESIn studies of individual differences between women (adolescent and adult) who have avoided or experienced unwanted pregnancy, a characteristic consistently found to relate to the effectiveness of contraceptive protection is a sense of self-competence, efficacy, and control (e.g., Adler, Note 1; Chilman, Note 2). Arnold and Slagle (Note 3) hypothesize that lower self-esteem and self-competence among women with un-56

Contraceptive Behaviour in Swedish Women -a Follow-Up Study

“…Similarly, traditional sex role stereotypes may be less pronounced in couples where both the man and the woman have a fairly high level of education [ 121. More specifically, previous studies [13,14] have found less conventionally sex typed women to be better contraceptors, which may be due to the fact that they do not believe the man to be the protector-responsible partner and the woman to be passive and dependent.…”

First-Term Attrition among Marine Corps Women: Some Associated Factors

“…For individual women, however, the best predictors of pregnancy are those associated with (1) opportunity, which is influenced by factors such as marital status and age at marriage, and (2) the likelihood of using contraception, which is influenced by factors such as access to family planning services, employment status, and communication with partner. Adler (1981) described a constellation of traits and situational factors that appear to make unplanned pregnancies more likely. Women who become pregnant accidentally often have weak feelings of self-competence and control, a conflict over their own sexuality, a desire to demonstrate their adulthood, and a lack of career goals.…”

Realizing the Promise of Social Psychology in Improving Public Health

“…Leventhal (1986) introduced the notion that patient perceptions and mental representations were key antecedents to symptom interpretation, health behavior, and adherence. Adler (1981) was an early leader in understanding psychological dimensions of reproductive health and contraceptive use. Pennebaker conducted groundbreaking work on symptom reports (e.g., Pennebaker & Skelton, 1981) and on the effect of expressive writing about traumatic experiences on well-being (Pennebaker, 1989).…”