“…However, unlike Western studies with similar instruments, the Nepalese and Filipino female subjects also had significantly lower overall self-esteem. As Olowu (1985) stated when explaining similar gender-related differences in Nigeria, such results may be due to the feminist movement and the striving for sexual equality being less accepted in Nepal and the Philippines. Certainly in the Philippines, the concept of machismo, probably based on Spanish tradition, is prevalent (Angeles, 1977).…”