Sex differences in Parkinson disease-associated episodic memory and processing speed deficits

Abstract

Objectives: This study aims to address a gap in the data on cognitive sex differences in persons living with Parkinson disease (PD). There is some evidence that cognitive dysfunction is more severe in male PD, however data on episodic memory and processing speed is incomplete. Methods: One hundred and sixty-seven individuals with a diagnosis of PD were included in this study. Fifty-six of those individuals identified as female. The California Verbal Learning Test 1st edition and the Wechsler Memory Scale 3rd edition were used to evaluate verbal and visuospatial episodic memory and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale 3rd edition was used to evaluate processing speed. Multivariate analysis of covariance was used to identify sex-specific differences across groups. Results: Our results show that males with PD performed significantly worse than females in verbal and visuospatial recall as well as a trend for the processing speed task of coding. Conclusions: Our finding of superior performance among females with PD in verbal episodic memory is consistent with reports in both healthy and PD individuals; however, females outperforming males in measures of visuospatial episodic memory is unique to PD. Cognitive deficits preferentially affecting males appear to be associated with frontal lobe-related function. Therefore, males may represent a disease subgroup more susceptible to disease mechanisms affecting frontal lobe deterioration and cognitive disturbances in PD.

Neuroactive Steroids, Toll-like Receptors, and Neuroimmune Regulation: Insights into Their Impact on Neuropsychiatric Disorders

“…Other evidence reports increased proinflammatory cytokines, including TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, and IL-6, in blood, brain, and CSF of PD patients [455,456]. Furthermore, as the prevalence of PD is nearly two times higher in men than in women [457][458][459], it has led to the hypothesis that female sex hormones might play a protective role against the factors contributing to PD pathology [460,461]. In line with this, several neurosteroids have been implicated as potentially beneficial therapeutics for the treatment of PD.…”