Sex Differences in Cognitive Functioning: Evidence, Determinants, Implications

Abstract

The purpose of this article is to examine the evidence for sex differences in cognitive functioning and to review and evaluate evidence for hormonal, genetic, neuro-anatomical, and cultural determinants of such differences. Inadequacies in the evidence for sex differences, such as underreporting of negative findings, failure to measure effect size, small sample sizes, etc., are noted. It is likely that sex hormones influence the organization and functioning of the brain. Sex differences in brain organization and functioning are discussed. In summary, the existence of sex differences in cognitive functioning is clear, but further research is needed to elucidate the determinants of these differences.

Multiple password interference in text passwords and click-based graphical passwords

“…We found that male participants were significantly more likely to successfully recall their PassPoints passwords Table 3, 71% of males correctly entered their PassPoints password within 3 attempts as opposed to only 40% of female participants. This result aligns with psychology research which continues to show that males tend to perform better at visual-spatial tasks, while females generally have better performance with linguistic tasks [5,23]. Although this gender difference was not apparent in the success rates for Text passwords, males were more likely to employ a coping mechanism to help remember their text passwords (see Section 4.4).…”

“…In post-hoc analysis, we found that males were more successful than females with graphical passwords and that males were more likely to use account-related text passwords. These results align with psychology literature showing that males perform better at visual-spatial tasks and more weakly in linguistic tasks than females [5,23]. The results of this paper motivate further study in field settings and deeper examination of the underlying human factors issues involved in using these authentication mechanisms.…”

The self- versus full-service decision: Gender-based differences in assessment of risk

“…16,17 It has been suggested that gender-based differences in risk-taking propensity are a consequence of sociological (eg social roles) and/or biological (eg brain functioning) sources. [18][19][20][21][22] Although an individual's perception of risk is 'subjective, as is perception of information', the manner in which risk is perceived and information evaluated is also a consequence of gender. 23 According to the selectivity model, men and women process information differently.…”

Sex Differences in Intellectual Performance during Middle Age

“…In fact, as chronolog ical age goes up, the number of studies decreases. This is shown clearly by recent reviews of this literature [Garai and Scheinfeld, 1968;Lehr, 1969;Matarazzo,\912\ Maccoby and Jacklin, 1974;Sherman, 1978;Jensen, 1980;Burstein et al, 1980]. Although the great test constructors from Binet to Wechsler had been well aware of differences between the sexes at various age levels, attempts to identify the conditions of similarity and differences in intelligence performance and its development have yielded inconsistent findings.…”

“…Most of the reviewers of the empirical literature on sex differences in intellectual funtioning have agreed that women exceed men on verbal per formance, and men exceed women on spatial abilities and activity-linked tasks [Anastasi, 1958;Garai and Scheinfeld, 1968;Maccoby and Jacklin, 1974;Cohen el al" 1977;Burstein et al" 1980], Some reviewers, however, such as Jensen [1980] and Sherman [1978], cast doubt on those conclu sions. They argue that methodological and statistical shortcomings invali date a number of studies in which significant differences appeared, and even where differences were valid they were very small in absolute terms.…”