Sex differences and considerations for female specific nutritional strategies: a narrative review

Abstract

Although there is a plethora of information available regarding the impact of nutrition on exercise performance, many recommendations are based on male needs due to the dominance of male participation in the nutrition and exercise science literature. Female participation in sport and exercise is prevalent, making it vital for guidelines to address the sex-specific nutritional needs. Female hormonal levels, such as estrogen and progesterone, fluctuate throughout the mensural cycle and lifecycle requiring more attention for effective nutritional considerations. Sex-specific nutritional recommendations and guidelines for the active female and female athlete have been lacking to date and warrant further consideration. This review provides a practical overview of key physiological and nutritional considerations for the active female. Available literature regarding sex-specific nutrition and dietary supplement guidelines for women has been synthesized, offering evidenced-based practical information that can be incorporated into the daily lives of women to improve performance, body composition, and overall health.

Methodology Review: A Protocol to Audit the Representation of Female Athletes in Sports Science and Sports Medicine Research

“…Because the ovarian hormones estrogen and progesterone influence multiple biological systems (Ansdell et al, 2020;Devries, 2016;Green et al, 2016;Laurent et al, 2014;Wohlgemuth et al, 2021), they have the potential to cause downstream effects on the nature and heterogeneity of the findings of various study topics. This is of relevance to high-performance athletes (specifically) whose fluctuations in ovarian hormone concentrations, and any resulting influence on study outcomes, may mask marginal (i.e., <1%-2%) changes in performance that are of significance within realworld elite sporting scenarios.…”

Nutritional optimization for female elite football players—topical review

“…Ultimately, female athletes need to consume an adequate amount of calcium to attain optimal bone mineral density, especially during adolescence, as peak bone mass is achieved in early adulthood. 146 For adult women, the daily recommended intake of calcium is 1000 mg per day, 146,147 corresponding to a total daily intake of ~0.5 L skimmed milk (~600 mg), 50 g oats (~57 mg), 100 g spinach/kale (~219 mg), and 100 g whole wheat bread (~120 mg). However, challenges in reaching these amounts may arise if an athlete excludes dairy products, eg, due to dairy/lactose intolerance or veganism, 147,148 and a strategy to consume calcium-rich alternatives may therefore be needed.…”

Effects of oral contraceptive use on muscle strength, muscle thickness, and fiber size and composition in young women undergoing 12 weeks of strength training: a cohort study

“…In women of reproductive age, the levels of these endogenous sex hormones fluctuate throughout the menstrual cycle [ 44 ]; they not only influence the reproductive system but also have other physiological functions [ 11 ]. Estrogen, which reaches high levels in the follicular phase and is assumed to act as an anabolic agent, plays a role in lipid metabolism by increasing the maximal activity of key fat oxidation enzymes in skeletal muscles [ 45 ], stimulates AMP-activated protein kinase in skeletal muscles [ 46 ], and enhances growth hormone levels [ 47 ]. Conversely, progesterone, which reaches a high concentration in the luteal phase, appears to inhibit the lipolytic effect of endogenous estradiol and has catabolic effects on muscles [ 48 , 49 ].…”