Sex, cheating, and disgust: Enhanced source memory for trait information that violates gender stereotypes

Kroneisen, Meike; Bell, Raoul

doi:10.1080/09658211.2012.713971

Cited by 48 publications

(98 citation statements)

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“…In the memory test, old–new recognition was not affected by facial trustworthiness and partner behavior, consistent with a large number of previous studies showing that a person’s behavior has no effect on old–new face recognition (e.g., Barclay and Lalumière, 2006; Mehl and Buchner, 2008; Buchner et al, 2009; Kroneisen and Bell, 2013). There are some reports suggesting that old–new recognition is better for untrustworthy-looking than for trustworthy-looking persons (Rule et al, 2012; Bell et al, 2013; Mattarozzi et al, 2015), but this finding was not reliably obtained across experiments (Bell et al, 2012b), and was not replicated here.…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 88%

“…In most experiments (Suzuki and Suga, 2010; Bell et al, 2012b), this memory advantage was asymmetric in that participants remembered cheating better than cooperation when the partners looked trustworthy, but there was only a non-significant tendency toward remembering cooperation better than cheating when the partners looked untrustworthy. This asymmetry should be particularly pronounced for female faces because they elicit more positive social expectations than male faces, which means that the violation of these positive expectations is particularly salient when female faces are used (Kroneisen and Bell, 2013). …”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Cognitive Load Does Not Affect the Behavioral and Cognitive Foundations of Social Cooperation

2016

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The present study serves to test whether the cognitive mechanisms underlying social cooperation are affected by cognitive load. Participants interacted with trustworthy-looking and untrustworthy-looking partners in a sequential Prisoner’s Dilemma Game. Facial trustworthiness was manipulated to stimulate expectations about the future behavior of the partners which were either violated or confirmed by the partners’ cheating or cooperation during the game. In a source memory test, participants were required to recognize the partners and to classify them as cheaters or cooperators. A multinomial model was used to disentangle item memory, source memory and guessing processes. We found an expectancy-congruent bias toward guessing that trustworthy-looking partners were more likely to be associated with cooperation than untrustworthy-looking partners. Source memory was enhanced for cheating that violated the participants’ positive expectations about trustworthy-looking partners. We were interested in whether or not this expectancy-violation effect—that helps to revise unjustified expectations about trustworthy-looking partners—depends on cognitive load induced via a secondary continuous reaction time task. Although this secondary task interfered with working memory processes in a validation study, both the expectancy-congruent guessing bias as well as the expectancy-violation effect were obtained with and without cognitive load. These findings support the hypothesis that the expectancy-violation effect is due to a simple mechanism that does not rely on demanding elaborative processes. We conclude that most cognitive mechanisms underlying social cooperation presumably operate automatically so that they remain unaffected by cognitive load.

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 88%

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Cognitive Load Does Not Affect the Behavioral and Cognitive Foundations of Social Cooperation

2016

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“…In previ ous studies (Kroneisen & Bell, 2013), it was observed that people expect men to show more disgusting behaviors than women. These stereotypes may have some truth in them, because there is evi dence that men indeed are more likely to show disgusting behavior than women (Rozin, Haidt, McCauley, Dunlop, & Ashmore, 1999).…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 97%

Appearance-based first impressions and person memory.

Bell¹,

Mieth²,

Buchner³

2015

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cogni

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Previous research has demonstrated that people preferentially remember reputational information that is emotionally incongruent to their expectations, but it has left open the question of the generality of this effect. Three conflicting hypotheses were proposed: (a) The effect is restricted to information relevant to reciprocal social exchange. (b) The effect is most pronounced for emotional (approach-and-avoidance-relevant) information. (c) The effect is due to a general tendency of the cognitive system to attend to unexpected and novel information regardless of its (emotional) content. Here, we varied the type of to-be-remembered person information across experiments. To stimulate expectations, we selected faces whose facial appearance was rated as pleasant or disgusting (Experiments 1 and 2), as intelligent or unintelligent (Experiment 3), or as being that of a lawyer or a farmer (Experiment 4). These faces were paired with behavior descriptions that violated or confirmed these appearance-based 1st impressions. Source memory for the association between the faces and the descriptions was assessed with surprise memory tests. The results show that people are willing to form various social expectations based on facial appearance alone, and they support the hypothesis that the classification of the faces in the memory test is biased by schema-congruent guessing. Source memory was generally enhanced for information violating appearance-based social expectations. In sum, the results show that person memory is consistently affected by different kinds of social expectations, supporting the idea that the mechanisms determining memory performance generalize beyond exchange-relevant reputational and emotional information.

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“…Overview of the procedure common to all experiments.^ Consistent with the sex stereotype that women are kinder and less egoistic than men(Kroneisen & Bell, 2013), female faces (trustworthy looking: M [SD] = 2.75 [0.15], untrustworthy looking: 1.88 [0.11]) were rated as significantly more trustworthy than male ones (trustworthy looking: 2.59 [0.12], untrustworthy looking: 1.68 [0.07]), F(l, 20) = 13.684, MSE = 0.013,/> = .001, f\j = .…”

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confidence: 96%

Indelible distrust: Memory bias toward cheaters revealed as high persistence against extinction.

Suzuki

Honma

Suga

2013

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cogni

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Our ability to learn about the reputations of others-that is, who is likely to cooperate versus cheat-contributes greatly to cooperativeness in society. There has been recent debate whether humans employ memory bias favoring cheaters (i.e., there is an evolved module for the detection of cheaters) or whether no such bias exists (i.e., reputation learning is flexibly modulated by contextual factors). We report 3 experiments that address this issue by comparing persistence against extinction-which is a reliable measure of prepared fear learning (Öhman & Mineka, 2001)-between memories regarding cheaters and cooperators. In all experiments, participants learned to classify unfamiliar persons as either cooperators or cheaters, and, then, they were instructed to disregard those learned associations and told that they had been determined arbitrarily, which simulated a verbal extinction procedure in the fear conditioning paradigm (Hugdahl & Öhman, 1977). The results indicated that while postlearning changes in perceived trustworthiness were modulated by a contextual factor (appearance of the facial stimulus), the persistence of learning exhibited a cheater advantage: Cheaters remained perceived as untrustworthy to a greater extent than cooperators as trustworthy at the extinction period. Thus, there exists a cheater bias in human reputation learning, the proximate and ultimate mechanisms of which warrant further study.

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Sex, cheating, and disgust: Enhanced source memory for trait information that violates gender stereotypes

Cited by 48 publications

References 50 publications

Cognitive Load Does Not Affect the Behavioral and Cognitive Foundations of Social Cooperation

Cognitive Load Does Not Affect the Behavioral and Cognitive Foundations of Social Cooperation

Appearance-based first impressions and person memory.

Indelible distrust: Memory bias toward cheaters revealed as high persistence against extinction.

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