Sex bias in counseling and psychotherapy.

Abstract

The notion that existing research proves the sex bias inherent in counseling and psychotherapy is pervasive. Almost every subsequent study has taken as a major premise the finding by Broverman, Broverman, Clarkson, Rosenkrantz, and Vogel that clinicians hold different standards of mental health for men and women. In the present research, both the published and unpublished studies of sex bias in either counseling or psychotherapy were closely analyzed and their results integrated using meta-analytic techniques. The overall results from the meta-analysis showed an absence of bias against women or against nonstereotyped roles for women in studies of either counselors or psychotherapists. In published studies there was a small (.25 SD) sex-bias effect, and unpublished studies showed the same magnitude of bias toward women and a degree of rigor in research design at least as good as that evident in published studies.This research supplies empirical support for what feminists have long suspected: that therapy is bad for women, Right now, in our excessively sexist society, it is unlikely that anyone, without special training in feminism, can create conditions which would encourage females to exercise their right to select goals if the goals are at variance with the goals of the counselor.. . . Today, it is probably not a serious misrepresentation to say that all counselors are sexist (pp. 713-714).

Gender-fair psychotherapy in the United States: A possible dream?

“…Anecdotal and survey evidence lead us to believe that such bias continues to exist and it results in less effective therapy (Davidson & Abramovitz, 1980), but to prove it definitively has been more difficult (Heatherington, Mazzarella and Stetts, 1986;Steams et al, 1980). Evidence regarding the measured effects of therapists' attitudes, whether reportedly biased or gender-fair, has been mixed; it is replete with methodological problems as is the evidence for effectiveness of therapy generally (Garfield, 1986;Heatherington, Mazzarella and Stetts, 1986;Orlinsky & Howard, 1980;Smith, 1980;Whiteley, 1979). Some have argued that a therapist's values and expectations do not matter as long as she or he is aware and does not impose them (Smith, 1980;Whiteley, 1979).…”

“…Evidence regarding the measured effects of therapists' attitudes, whether reportedly biased or gender-fair, has been mixed; it is replete with methodological problems as is the evidence for effectiveness of therapy generally (Garfield, 1986;Heatherington, Mazzarella and Stetts, 1986;Orlinsky & Howard, 1980;Smith, 1980;Whiteley, 1979). Some have argued that a therapist's values and expectations do not matter as long as she or he is aware and does not impose them (Smith, 1980;Whiteley, 1979). It would seem equally probable based on other evidence, that choice of therapeutic goals and processes can be influenced by the therapist's expectations.…”

Beyond counselling women: Some contemporary issues

“…Noonan and Wilgosh (1981) indicated that androgyny has not "generated sufficient empirical support to warrant its use as a model of therapy" (p. 36) and Pyke and Stark-Adamec (1981) suggested "that androgyny is the penultimate phase of sex-role evolution and that the ultimate stage is sex-role transcendence" (p. 45). Smith (1980) has written the most significant article to date on the relationship of counsellor attitudes and values to the counselling process. Based on a metaanalysis of a large number of studies examining sex bias in counselling and psychotherapy, Smith made a convincing argument that sex-role biases attributed to counsellors are an artifact of the use of ambiguous stimulus objects in simulated counselling settings where sex is the only salient cue about the hypothetical client to which the therapist can respond.…”

“…Particularly Stricker (1977) and Smith (1980) questioned a research literature which appeared to support the existence of bias against women in counselling. If that bias exists, it has yet to be demonstrated empirically in counselling process studies.…”

“…(p. 3) Thus, while Smith (1980) stated that no counsellor bias against women has been demonstrated, at a broader level it is clear that the status of women remains somewhat tenuous.…”