Serum Retinol, α-Tocopherol, and β-Carotene Levels Are Not Altered by Excess Ingestion of Diacylglycerol-Containing Plant Sterol Esters

Abstract

Background: Diacylglycerol (DAG) suppresses the postprandial increase in serum triglycerides, and has antiobesity effects. On the other hand, plant sterol esters (PSE) lower serum cholesterol levels in hypercholesterolemia. Thus, DAG-containing PSE (PSE/DAG) would be expected to maintain an appropriate serum cholesterol level and decrease the risk of arteriosclerotic disorders. Several recent studies, however, report negative effects of PSE on serum fat-soluble (pro)vitamin levels. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of PSE/DAG on serum retinol, β-carotene, and α-tocopherol levels using a threefold excess of the effective dose obtained in our previous study. Methods: A randomized placebo-controlled double-blind parallel study was performed in healthy and mildly hypercholesterolemic subjects, in which the subjects ingested 1.2 g PSE/30 g DAG for 2 weeks in the form of mayonnaise-type products. Triacylglycerol (TAG) mayonnaise was used as a control. Result: There were no subjective adverse effects or changes in serum retinol, α-tocopherol, and β-carotene levels, abdominal symptoms, hematologic values, or blood biochemical values. Conclusion: Ingestion of a threefold excess of PSE/DAG for 2 weeks had no adverse effects compared to ingestion of conventional TAG mayonnaise.

Scientific Opinion on the safety of stigmasterol-rich plant sterols as food additive

“…These investigations did not reveal any clinical study in which a significant decrease in circulating levels of fat-soluble vitamins was reported following consumption of up to 3.6 g/day of phytosterols for periods of up to 52 weeks in healthy subjects or hypercholesterolaemic subjects (Judd et al, 2002;Ntanios et al, 2002;Raeini-Sarjaz et al, 2002;Hendriks et al, 2003;Quílez et al, 2003;Colgan et al, 2004;Thomsen et al, 2004;Korpela et al, 2006;Saito et al, 2006;Polagruto et al, 2006;Devaraj et al, 2006). Likewise, there were no significant reductions in absolute or lipid-adjusted plasma/serum carotenoid concentrations (Judd et al, 2002;Raeini-Sarjaz et al, 2002;Quílez et al, 2003;Colgan et al, 2004;Thomsen et al, 2004;Saito et al, 2006;Polagruto et al, 2006;Devaraj et al, 2006;Hansel et al, 2007;Gonçalves et al, 2007;Plana et al, 2008). Of the reviewed studies, a single study reported decreased bioavailability of β-carotene and α-tocopherol (Richelle et al, 2004), while 5 studies reported decreased circulating levels of carotenoids (Judd et al, 2002;Ntanios et al, 2002;Hendriks et al, 2003;Noakes et al, 2005;Polagruto et al, 2006).…”

“…Several clinical trials were conducted with endpoints related to the effects of phytosterols or phytosterol esters on the circulating lipid soluble vitamin and carotenoid levels (Saito et al, 2006;Colgan et al, 2004;Ntanios et al, 2002Judd et al, 2002Noakes et al, 2005;Plana et al, 2008;Hansel et al, 2007;Polagruto et al, 2006;Devaraj et al, 2006;Quílez et al, 2003;Hendriks et al, 2003;Raeini-Sarjaz et al, 2002;Richelle et al, 2004;Gonçalves et al, 2007;Thomsen et al, 2004;Korpela et al, 2006). Several clinical trials were conducted with endpoints related to the effects of phytosterols or phytosterol esters on the circulating lipid soluble vitamin and carotenoid levels (Saito et al, 2006;Colgan et al, 2004;Ntanios et al, 2002Judd et al, 2002Noakes et al, 2005;Plana et al, 2008;Hansel et al, 2007;Polagruto et al, 2006;Devaraj et al, 2006;Quílez et al, 2003;Hendriks et al, 2003;Raeini-Sarjaz et al, 2002;Richelle et al, 2004;Gonçalves et al, 2007;Thomsen et al, 2004;Korpela et al, 2006).…”

“…As consumption of phytosterols results in decreased cholesterol absorption, reduction of the absorption of carotenoids and lipid-soluble vitamins also may occur. Several clinical trials were conducted with endpoints related to the effects of phytosterols or phytosterol esters on the circulating lipid soluble vitamin and carotenoid levels (Saito et al, 2006;Colgan et al, 2004;Ntanios et al, 2002Judd et al, 2002Noakes et al, 2005;Plana et al, 2008;Hansel et al, 2007;Polagruto et al, 2006;Devaraj et al, 2006;Quílez et al, 2003;Hendriks et al, 2003;Raeini-Sarjaz et al, 2002;Richelle et al, 2004;Gonçalves et al, 2007;Thomsen et al, 2004;Korpela et al, 2006). These studies generally applied phytosterols or phytosterol esters at dose levels of 1.2 up to 4 g/day for 3-8 weeks up to one year.…”

Possible anti‐obesity effects of phytosterols and phytostanols supplementation in humans: A systematic review and dose–response meta‐analysis of randomized controlled trials

“…Phytosterol derivatives reported to reduce serum and liver TG and TC levels and to increase the lipid excretion via feces and also decrease body weight in a dose-dependent manner (Suzuki et al, 2007). Other research groups reported reduced abdominal, visceral, and subcutaneous fat after phytosterols consumption in healthy subjects, without imposing adverse events such as reduced serum fat-soluble vitamins levels (Saito et al, 2006;Takeshita et al, 2007). Improving insulin sensitivity and glucose metabolism after PS supplementation Xiong et al, 2018) also has been reported.…”

The Use of Functional Plant Ingredients for the Development of Efficacious Functional Foods

“…Studies using tablets add lecithin as an emulsifying agent (McPherson et al 2005;Goldberg et al 2006). Food matrices that have been efficacious vehicles for administering PS include lipidbased spreads Varady et al 2004;Lau et al 2005;Alhassan et al 2006;Hallikainen et al 2006;Chan et al 2007;Varady et al 2007;Clifton et al 2008), milk (Clifton et al 2004b;Richelle et al 2004;Thomsen et al 2004;Noakes et al 2005;Goncalves et al 2006;Hansel et al 2007;Li et al 2007;Madsen et al 2007;Plana et al 2008;Houweling et al 2009), yogurt (Volpe et al 2001;Clifton et al 2004b;Noakes et al 2005;Doornbos et al 2006;Plana et al 2008), mayonnaise (Saito et al 2006b) and beef (Matvienko et al 2002). Plant sterol-enriched cereals and breads have also been shown to be efficacious cholesterol-lowering foods (Clifton et al 2004b).…”