Sensor Technologies for Transmission and Distribution Systems: A Review of the Latest Developments

Abstract

The transmission and distribution systems are essential in facilitating power flow from the source multiple loads over large distances with high magnitudes of voltages and currents. Hence, the monitoring and control of various components of these structures are crucial. Traditionally, this was implemented by sensing only the grid current and grid voltage parameters through coils, clamps, or instrument transformers. However, these have bulky structures that restrict them to the substation and have installation and maintenance issues due to their direct contact with high voltage conductors. Currently, the power grid is undergoing various developments e.g., penetration of renewable energy sources, remote control, and automation, bidirectional power flow, etc. These developments call for compact and energy-efficient sensors to sense multiple grid parameters such as the magnetic field data, temperature, humidity, acoustics, etc., to enable real time, wide area monitoring and the predictive maintenance of the power grid. The goal of this paper is to summarize the advancements in sensing technologies on transmission and distribution systems over a decade and to explain their role in the forthcoming expansion of the power grids. This paper aims to outline the current state-of-affairs of sensor technology as well as to fill research gaps by exploring their limitations.

Improved Detection of Drug-Induced Liver Injury by Integrating Predictedin vivoandin vitroData

“…Compound SMILES were standardized using the MolVS standardizer 56 ( implemented using RDKit 55 v.2022.09.5) which included tautomer standardization and canonicalization to the parent molecule. Standardization settings involved sanitization, normalization, largest fragment chooser, charge fixed and reionised such that the strongest acids ionize first tautomer enumeration, and canonicalization as described in the MolVS standardizer guide.…”

“…Standardization settings involved sanitization, normalization, largest fragment chooser, charge fixed and reionised such that the strongest acids ionize first tautomer enumeration, and canonicalization as described in the MolVS standardizer guide. 56 Among the 1,317 compounds, in cases where DILIrank and DILIst contained the same compound SMILES with conflicting toxicity labels, we retained compounds in DILIst (which is an updated version of DILIrank). Finally, we obtained a dataset of 1,275 unique compounds and associated DILI labels (820 toxic and 455 non-toxic compounds).…”

Electric Transmission and Distribution Network Air Pollution

“…Figure 1 schematically shows the main components of an electric transmission and distribution network: the HVPL cables carry the electricity from an electric power plant to a transformer, and through the use of proper switchgears, LVPLs eventually carry the energy underground to cities. In general, such a system is already equipped with various monitoring sensors [ 17 ]. A network of this type is normally assumed to be characterized by practically zero emissions in terms of air polluting substances during its operation, except when malfunctions are observed in one or more of the components that characterize the network itself.…”

“…In modern power grids, batteries are a basic facility that provides inertia for system balance in the presence of distributed and variable energy sources. Unfortunately, they are prone to catastrophic malfunctions leading to fires and, more rarely, explosions [ 17 ]. In the automotive industry, new regulations now oblige that dangers to car passengers be signaled minutes before a dangerous event may occur [ 49 ].…”

Optical magnetic field sensors based on nanodielectrics: From biomedicine to IoT‐based energy internet

“…As the essential carrier and transfer channel of future energy, smart grids play a crucial role in power systems. Consequently, large-area arrangement of sensors and high-precision measurement are the primary goals to achieve reliable online condition monitoring of smart grids [112,113].…”