Sensing the presence of gods and spirits across cultures and faiths

Abstract

Hearing the voice of God, feeling the presence of the dead, being possessed by a demonic spirit—such events are among the most remarkable human sensory experiences. They change lives and in turn shape history. Why do some people report experiencing such events while others do not? We argue that experiences of spiritual presence are facilitated by cultural models that represent the mind as “porous,” or permeable to the world, and by an immersive orientation toward inner life that allows a person to become “absorbed” in experiences. In four studies with over 2,000 participants from many religious traditions in the United States, Ghana, Thailand, China, and Vanuatu, porosity and absorption played distinct roles in determining which people, in which cultural settings, were most likely to report vivid sensory experiences of what they took to be gods and spirits.

Channeling: A Non-pathological Possession and Dissociative Identity Experience or Something Else?

“…According to the channelers' personal reports, the latter is true. The same interpretation is shared by many cultures and religions, as well documented by Luhrmann et al (2021). However, how is it possible to tackle this hypothesis from a scientific point of view?…”

Spontaneous Spiritual Awakenings: Phenomenology, Altered States, Individual Differences, and Well-Being

“…Indeed, as noted in the Introduction, this is perhaps not wholly surprising, as trait absorption has been found to predict mystical and quasi-mystical experiences produced endogenously in certain sensory-depriving, homeostasis-unbalancing, and trance-inducing contexts (Rock, 2009 ; Luhrmann et al, 2010 ; Bronkhorst, 2016 ; Luke et al, 2018 ; Glicksohn and Ben-Soussan, 2020 ), as well as some of the common characteristics of spiritual states associated with SSA/SKAs, such as stronger empathy (Wickramasekera and Szlyk, 2003 ; Wickramasekera, 2007 ), stronger flow states (Marty-Dugas and Smilek, 2019 ), more pronounced creativity (Wild et al, 1995 ; Manmiller et al, 2005 ), a stronger attachment to nature and other forms of life (Kaplan, 1995 ; Brown and Katcher, 1997 ), feelings of self-transcendence (Cardeña and Terhune, 2014 ), more pronounced experiences of synaesthesia (Rader and Tellegen, 1987 ; Glicksohn et al, 1999 ; Chun and Hupé, 2016 ), alterations in time-space perception and meaning (Pekala et al, 1985 ; Kumar and Pekala, 1988 ), and paranormal beliefs or experiences (Glicksohn, 1990 , 2004 ; Spanos et al, 1993 ; Glicksohn and Barrett, 2003 ; Granqvist et al, 2005 ; French et al, 2008 ; Parra, 2008 ; Zingrone et al, 2009 ; Luhrmann et al, 2010 , 2021 ; Gray and Gallo, 2016 ; Parra and Gimenez Amarilla, 2016 ), in drug and non-drug contexts relative to the general population. The differences in measured predictions of SSA/SKA intensity between TLL and absorption are likely due to the fact that each dependent variable used in our study measured slightly different aspects of overall SSA/SKA experiences (i.e., kundalini awakening, nondual experience, mystical experience, ASC).…”

“…Traditionally, the trait has been associated with “fantasy proneness,” hypnotisability, imagery ability, openness to experiences (McCrae and Costa, 1983 ; Pekala et al, 1985 ; Roche and McConkey, 1990 ; Glisky et al, 1991 ), alterations in body image, time-space perception, and meaning (Pekala et al, 1985 ; Kumar and Pekala, 1988 ), higher emotional sensitivity and emotional brain processing (McCrae and Costa, 1983 ; Benning et al, 2015 ), stronger empathy (Wickramasekera and Szlyk, 2003 ; Wickramasekera, 2007 ), stronger flow states (Marty-Dugas and Smilek, 2019 ), intellectual curiosity (McCrae and Costa, 1983 ), more pronounced creativity and engagement in the arts (Wild et al, 1995 ; Manmiller et al, 2005 ), positive emotional responses to music (Rhodes et al, 1988 ), more pronounced experiences of synaesthesia (Rader and Tellegen, 1987 ; Glicksohn et al, 1999 ; Chun and Hupé, 2016 ), and an attachment to nature and other forms of life (Kaplan, 1995 ; Brown and Katcher, 1997 ), relative to the general population. The trait of absorption has also been associated with experiences of dissociation (Carleton et al, 2010 ), hallucinations (Glicksohn and Barrett, 2003 ; Glicksohn, 2004 ; Perona-Garcelán et al, 2013 , 2016 ), and paranormal beliefs or experiences (Glicksohn, 1990 , 2004 ; Spanos et al, 1993 ; Glicksohn and Barrett, 2003 ; French et al, 2008 ; Parra, 2008 ; Zingrone et al, 2009 ; Luhrmann et al, 2010 , 2021 ; Gray and Gallo, 2016 ; Parra and Gimenez Amarilla, 2016 ), such as hearing voices or feeling spiritual presences (Granqvist et al, 2005 ; Luhrmann et al, 2010 , 2021 ), and feelings of self-transcendence (Cardeña and Terhune, 2014 ). Absorption is associated with porosity, the degree to which one identifies the outside world and its events as permeable with the inner world (Luhrmann et al, 2021 ); and transliminality, the subconscious tendency for internal or external material to “cross the threshold of consciousness” (Lange et al, 2000 ; Houran et al, 2003 ).…”

“…The trait of absorption has also been associated with experiences of dissociation (Carleton et al, 2010 ), hallucinations (Glicksohn and Barrett, 2003 ; Glicksohn, 2004 ; Perona-Garcelán et al, 2013 , 2016 ), and paranormal beliefs or experiences (Glicksohn, 1990 , 2004 ; Spanos et al, 1993 ; Glicksohn and Barrett, 2003 ; French et al, 2008 ; Parra, 2008 ; Zingrone et al, 2009 ; Luhrmann et al, 2010 , 2021 ; Gray and Gallo, 2016 ; Parra and Gimenez Amarilla, 2016 ), such as hearing voices or feeling spiritual presences (Granqvist et al, 2005 ; Luhrmann et al, 2010 , 2021 ), and feelings of self-transcendence (Cardeña and Terhune, 2014 ). Absorption is associated with porosity, the degree to which one identifies the outside world and its events as permeable with the inner world (Luhrmann et al, 2021 ); and transliminality, the subconscious tendency for internal or external material to “cross the threshold of consciousness” (Lange et al, 2000 ; Houran et al, 2003 ). Deeper states of absorption can be cultivated through ritual, including communal repetitive behaviours such as chanting or drumming, meditation (Bronkhorst, 2016 ), prayer (Luhrmann et al, 2010 ), and the disruption of homeostatic balance, including through the ingestion of certain psychotropic substances (Bronkhorst, 2016 ).…”

Being You by Anil Seth book review

“…Moreover, how can the "controlled hallucination view" explain the reason why cultural and religious beliefs, influence behavior, habits, beliefs (e.g. Luhrmann et al, 2021)?. Similarly, how can such a "woven bundle of neurally encoded predictions geared towards keeping your body alive" explain suicide and some extreme choices like martyrdom (Sela & Shackelford, 2014)?…”