Self‐Esteem: A Human Solution to the Problem of Death

Abstract

Terror management theory (TMT) posits that the need for self‐esteem develops out of the socialization process in which children learn to abide by parental and, eventually, societal standards of ‘goodness’ to feel securely embedded in a cultural belief system. According to TMT, feeling safely immersed in a meaningful conception of reality (i.e., the cultural worldview) ultimately functions to protect people from anxiety due to the uniquely human capacity to be cognizant of their eventual death. After presenting the basic tenets of this perspective, we review several lines of research supporting it and then address some common questions and criticisms of the theory such as how is a TMT view of anxiety consistent with evolutionary principles, why do people commit suicide, and how is self‐esteem pursued in non‐Western, self‐effacing cultures? Finally, we discuss some implications of TMT for understanding social problems and for pursuing meaning and self‐esteem in healthier, more socially productive ways.

Death across the lifespan: Age differences in death-related thoughts and anxiety

“…It may be that close relationships increase self-esteem, which has been shown to be a buffer against existential anxiety (Schimel et al, 2008), reduce anxiety more broadly, instill a sense of security (Cox et al, 2008), or impose meaning and structure in our lives over time (Landau et al, 2004). It is likely that close relationships serve all these functions (and more).…”

“…For example, activating thoughts of close loved ones after mortality is made salient reduces people's tendency to derogate outgroup members who criticize their worldview (Cox et al, 2008). Close relationships reduce the effects of mortality salience through bolstering an individual's self-esteem and psychosocial resources (Arndt & Vess, 2008;Schimel, Landau, & Hayes, 2008). Because individuals invest more in close relationships over time, age-related declines in death anxiety could result from increases in relationship investment and the accompanying increases in selfesteem (Chopik, Edelstein, & Fraley, 2013;Knee, Canevello, Bush, & Cook, 2008).…”

Longitudinal Associations of Narcissism with Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Institutional Outcomes: An Investigation Using a Representative Sample of the German Population

“…For instance, interpersonally, the attainment and maintenance of friendships and peer relationships forms an integral part of people's social lives (Bushman & Baumeister, 1998). Intrapersonally, self-esteem is highly relevant to the management and integration of social feedback (J. D. Brown, 2010) and at the core of human functioning in the social domain (Donnellan, Trzesniewski, Robins, Moffitt, & Caspi, 2005;Schimel, Landau, & Hayes, 2008), while positive and negative affect relate to frustration and aggression (e.g., Berkowitz, 1989). Institutional outcomes such as status attainment at work are strongly based on social evaluations by co-workers and superiors (e.g., Babiak, Neumann, & Hare, 2010) and are predicted by socially embedded personality traits such as extraversion (Judge, Bono, Ilies, & Gerhardt, 2002;Roberts, Kuncel, Shiner, Caspi, & Goldberg, 2007).…”

Can Self-Esteem Help Teens Resist Unhealthy Influence of Materialistic Goals Promoted By Role Models?

“… Kasser and Ryan, 1993 ; Cohen and Cohen, 1996 ; Williams et al, 2000 ; Twenge et al, 2010 ; Manolis and Roberts, 2012 ; Kasser et al, 2014 ; Tsang et al, 2014 ; Moldes and Ku, 2020 ). Some researchers uphold the claim that self-esteem is essential for the functioning and allows predicting the effects of actions and even life success ( Donnellan et al, 2005 ; Schimel et al, 2008 ), while others point to its limited value or even the burden that high self-esteem may put on individuals ( Baumeister et al, 1996 , 2003 ; Heatherton and Vohs, 2000 ). The presented studies also have practical implications.…”