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Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) causes a highly contagious disease in young chicks and leads to significant economic losses in the poultry industry. The capsid protein VP2 of IBDV plays an important role in virus binding and cell recognition. VP2 forms a subviral particle (SVP) with immunogenicity similar to that of the IBDV capsid. In the present study, we first showed that SVP could inhibit IBDV infection to an IBDV-susceptible cell line, DF-1 cells, in a dose-dependent manner. Second, the localizations of the SVP on the surface of DF-1 cells were confirmed by fluorescence microscopy, and the specific binding of the SVP to DF-1 cells occurred in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, the attachment of SVP to DF-1 cells was inhibited by an SVP-induced neutralizing monoclonal antibody against IBDV but not by denatured-VP2-induced polyclonal antibodies. Third, the cellular factors in DF-1 cells involved in the attachment of SVP were purified by affinity chromatography using SVP bound on the immobilized Ni 2؉ ions. A dominant factor was identified as being chicken heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) (cHsp90) by mass spectrometry. Results of biotinylation experiments and indirect fluorescence assays indicated that cHsp90 is located on the surface of DF-1 cells. Virus overlay protein binding assays and far-Western assays also concluded that cHsp90 interacts with IBDV and SVP, respectively. Finally, both Hsp90 and anti-Hsp90 can inhibit the infection of DF-1 cells by IBDV. Taken together, for the first time, our results suggest that cHsp90 is part of the putative cellular receptor complex essential for IBDV entry into DF-1 cells. Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV), a member of genusAvibirnavirus of the family Birnaviridae, causes a highly contagious disease in young chicks (27). Two serotypes (serotypes 1 and 2) of IBDV have been documented. Serotype 1 showed different degrees of pathogenicity and mortality in chicks, and serotype 2 was avirulent. As with all viruses, IBDV needs to penetrate target cells to cause infection. Chicken B lymphocytes are the primary target for virulent serotype 1 strains of IBDV, and the infection causes a functional loss of the bursa of Fabricius and severe immunodepression. However, other susceptible cells have also been reported (17). Viral attachment is the first step in virus infection (41). The distribution of a virus receptor mainly determines the cell and tissue tropism of the virus (1, 11) and the site of pathology associated with infection (9, 26). Thus, study of virus infection at the levels of virus binding, receptor identification, and even uncoating is critical for an understanding of the virus-host cell interactions and pathogenesis of viral disease (24, 32). Additionally, viral entry and uncoating can serve as targets for the development of antiviral drugs (39,42). Recent advances in the understanding of the viral infection process have made it possible to develop new approaches to block the entry of viruses (31) and to prevent diseases (41). However, the identificatio...
Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) causes a highly contagious disease in young chicks and leads to significant economic losses in the poultry industry. The capsid protein VP2 of IBDV plays an important role in virus binding and cell recognition. VP2 forms a subviral particle (SVP) with immunogenicity similar to that of the IBDV capsid. In the present study, we first showed that SVP could inhibit IBDV infection to an IBDV-susceptible cell line, DF-1 cells, in a dose-dependent manner. Second, the localizations of the SVP on the surface of DF-1 cells were confirmed by fluorescence microscopy, and the specific binding of the SVP to DF-1 cells occurred in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, the attachment of SVP to DF-1 cells was inhibited by an SVP-induced neutralizing monoclonal antibody against IBDV but not by denatured-VP2-induced polyclonal antibodies. Third, the cellular factors in DF-1 cells involved in the attachment of SVP were purified by affinity chromatography using SVP bound on the immobilized Ni 2؉ ions. A dominant factor was identified as being chicken heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) (cHsp90) by mass spectrometry. Results of biotinylation experiments and indirect fluorescence assays indicated that cHsp90 is located on the surface of DF-1 cells. Virus overlay protein binding assays and far-Western assays also concluded that cHsp90 interacts with IBDV and SVP, respectively. Finally, both Hsp90 and anti-Hsp90 can inhibit the infection of DF-1 cells by IBDV. Taken together, for the first time, our results suggest that cHsp90 is part of the putative cellular receptor complex essential for IBDV entry into DF-1 cells. Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV), a member of genusAvibirnavirus of the family Birnaviridae, causes a highly contagious disease in young chicks (27). Two serotypes (serotypes 1 and 2) of IBDV have been documented. Serotype 1 showed different degrees of pathogenicity and mortality in chicks, and serotype 2 was avirulent. As with all viruses, IBDV needs to penetrate target cells to cause infection. Chicken B lymphocytes are the primary target for virulent serotype 1 strains of IBDV, and the infection causes a functional loss of the bursa of Fabricius and severe immunodepression. However, other susceptible cells have also been reported (17). Viral attachment is the first step in virus infection (41). The distribution of a virus receptor mainly determines the cell and tissue tropism of the virus (1, 11) and the site of pathology associated with infection (9, 26). Thus, study of virus infection at the levels of virus binding, receptor identification, and even uncoating is critical for an understanding of the virus-host cell interactions and pathogenesis of viral disease (24, 32). Additionally, viral entry and uncoating can serve as targets for the development of antiviral drugs (39,42). Recent advances in the understanding of the viral infection process have made it possible to develop new approaches to block the entry of viruses (31) and to prevent diseases (41). However, the identificatio...
The recent demand for nanoparticulate products such as viruses, plasmids, protein nanoparticles, and drug delivery systems have resulted in the requirement for predictable and controllable production processes. Protein nanoparticles are an attractive candidate for gene and molecular therapy due to their relatively easy production and manipulation. These particles combine the advantages of both viral and non-viral vectors while minimizing the disadvantages. However, their successful application depends on the availability of selective and scalable methodologies for product recovery and purification. Downstream processing of nanoparticles depends on the production process, producer system, culture media and on the structural nature of the assembled nanoparticle, i.e., mainly size, shape and architecture. In this paper, the most common processes currently used for the purification of nanoparticles, are reviewed.
Artificial ditopic receptors for the differentiation of phosphorylated peptides varying in i+3 amino acid side chains were synthesized, and their binding affinities and selectivities were determined. The synthetic receptors show the highest binding affinities to phosphorylated peptides under physiological conditions (HEPES, pH 7.5, 154 mM NaCl) reported thus far for artificial systems. The tight and selective binding was achieved by high cooperativity of the two binding moieties in the receptor molecules. All receptors interact with phosphorylated serine by bis(ZnII-cyclen) complex coordination and a second binding site recognizing a carboxylate or imidazole amino acid side chain functionality.
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