Secondhand smoke levels in Scottish pubs: the effect of smoke-free legislation

Abstract

Objective: To compare levels of particulate matter, as a marker of secondhand smoke (SHS) levels, in pubs before and 2 months after the implementation of Scottish legislation to prohibit smoking in substantially enclosed public places. Design: Comparison of SHS levels before and after the legislation in a random selection of 41 pubs in 2 Scottish cities. Methods: Fine particulate matter ,2.5 mm in diameter (PM 2.5 ) was measured discreetly for 30 min in each bar on 1 or 2 visits in the 8 weeks preceding the starting date of the Smoking, Health and Social Care (Scotland) Act 2005 and then again 2 months after the ban. Repeat visits were undertaken on the same day of the week and at approximately the same time of the day. Results: PM 2.5 levels before the introduction of the legislation averaged 246 mg/m 3 (range 8-902 mg/m 3 ). The average level reduced to 20 mg/m 3 (range 6-104 mg/m 3 ) in the period after the ban. Levels of SHS were reduced in all 53 post-ban visits, with the average reduction being 86% (range 12-99%). PM 2.5 concentrations in most pubs post-ban were comparable to the outside ambient air PM 2.5 level.Conclusions: This study has produced the largest dataset of pre-and post-ban SHS levels in pubs of all worldwide smoke-free legislations introduced to date. Our results show that compliance with the Smoking, Health and Social Care (Scotland) Act 2005 has been high and this has led to a marked reduction in SHS concentrations in Scottish pubs, thereby reducing both the occupational exposure of workers in the hospitality sector and that of non-smoking patrons. 2 Data on exposure to SHS across a wide range of entertainment establishments indicated that airborne nicotine concentrations were up to 18.5 times higher than in offices or domestic residences.3 Studies have shown that non-smoking bar workers have salivary cotinine levels four times those of non-smokers who live with partners who smoke. 4 Data from New Zealand indicate that non-smoking hospitality workers in establishments that permit smoking have salivary cotinine levels between 3 and 4 times those of non-smoking workers in smoke-free premises.5 One estimate indicates that between 1500 and 2000 non-smokers' deaths per year in Scotland can be attributed to SHS exposure. 6 It has been suggested that SHS exposure may lead to the deaths of over 50 hospitality sector workers in the UK each year. The introduction of smoke-free legislation in other countries has been shown to dramatically reduce SHS levels. A recent analysis of the effect of the Norwegian legislation 8 showed that total dust levels in 13 bars and restaurants reduced from an average level of 262 to 77 mg/m 3 , a 70% reduction, whereas a study in the USA indicated that respirable dust levels in a selection of 8 hospitality venues reduced to approximately 9% of the pre-ban level.9 Similar work in New York State in a mixture of bars and restaurants measured levels of particulate matter ,2.5 mm in diameter (PM 2.5 ), and found that mean levels decreased from 412 to 27 mg/m 3 (93.5%). Alth...

Air Contamination Due to Smoking in German Restaurants, Bars, and Other Venues--Before and After the Implementation of a Partial Smoking Ban

“…The validity of particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of up to 2.5 mm (PM 2.5 ) as indicator for exposure to SHS is confirmed by studies showing a high correlation between concentrations of PM 2.5 and SHS-specific compounds (Bolte et al, 2008) or comparing PM 2.5 levels between venues with different degrees of smoking restriction (Brauer & Mannetje, 1998;Connolly et al, 2009;Repace et al, 2006;Semple et al, 2007;Travers, 2004). The mass concentration of suspended particles is measured in micrograms per cubic meter.…”

“…Air Contamination Due to Smoking in German Restaurants, Bars, and Other Venues-Before and After the Implementation of a Partial Smoking Ban of respirable suspended particles (Brauer & Mannetje, 1998;Connolly et al, 2009;Ellingsen et al, 2006;Goodman et al, 2007;Hyland, Travers, Dresler, Higbee, & Cummings, 2008;Johnsson et al, 2006;Repace et al, 2006;Semple et al, 2007;Travers, 2004).…”

Second-hand smoke and indoor air quality in public places in Gaza city

“…Studies conducted in the United States, Scotland and Italy reported reductions in indoor PM 2.5 levels of 95%, 86% and 64%, respectively, after indoor smoking was banned [17][18][19]. These policies have also been found to lead to immediate improved health outcomes among venue employees as well as the general public.…”

“…Other contributors, such as cooking, may have influenced PM 2.5 measurement. However, evidence shows that smoking, and not cooking emissions, is the overwhelming source of indoor PM 2.5 [17][18][19].…”

Second-hand smoke exposure in a sample of European hospitals

“…Airborne markers, such as vapour-phase nicotine or respirable suspended particles indicate the mean exposure level in a specific setting, and are easier to obtain than biological samples [8]. Among respirable suspended particles, those with a 50% cut-off aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 mm (commonly known as fine particles or PM2.5) are widely used for SHS assessment in enclosed settings [9][10][11]. PM2.5 originate from all types of combustion, including motor vehicles, residential wood burning, forest fires, some industrial processes, etc.…”