Seasonal variability in the diet and feeding ecology of black‐and‐white ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata) in Ranomafana National Park, southeastern Madagascar

Abstract

Objectives: We characterized the diet and foraging ecology of the black-and-white ruffed lemur (Varecia variegata), a specialized frugivore, and investigated behavioral strategies exhibited in response to seasonal changes in resource availability. Materials and Methods: Behavioral data were collected from the same two adjacent communities across 29 months during two observation periods (2007-2008; 2017-2018) in Mangevo, a primary rainforest habitat in southeastern Madagascar. To analyze feeding in the context of energy maximization versus time minimization strategies, we used nonparametric tests to compare plant part constituents, dietary diversity, activity budgets, and canopy strata use between fruit-abundant versus fruit-lean seasons. Results: Individuals dedicated 30% of their time to feeding year-round, mostly in the middle canopy (11-20 m). Animals fed primarily on fruits (74% of diet), but frugivory decreased and folivory increased markedly during fruit-lean seasons. Abundant season dietary diversity (98 taxa, H 0 = 0.71-1.37) was greater than lean season diversity (70 taxa, H 0 = 0.56-1.06), which coincided with less traveling, more resting, and higher canopy use-though interannual variation was observed. Conclusions: Herein, we describe behavioral and dietary patterns that are concordant with a time minimizing behavioral strategy. Black-and-white ruffed lemur diets comprised lower taxonomic diversity, fewer fruits, and more leaves during fruit-lean months. Further, shifts toward less travel, more resting, and greater use of higher canopy levels during this time were most likely for thermoregulatory benefits.

The gut microbiome as an indicator of habitat disturbance in a Critically Endangered lemur

“…To contribute to this goal, here we quantify the relationship between diet and the GM in Critically Endangered black-and-white ruffed lemurs ( Varecia variegata editorum ) occupying three habitats with different types and magnitudes of anthropogenic disturbance. Varecia are endemic to Madagascar’s eastern lowland and mid-altitude rain forests [ 38 , 39 ] and are considered obligate frugivores, consuming 75–99% fruit in pristine forest sites, though their degree of frugivory varies seasonally [ 40 – 44 ]. Given their selective feeding habits, Varecia are especially susceptible to anthropogenic pressure that often results in reduced fruit availability [ 42 , 45 , 46 ].…”

Seasonal differences in hair growth rates of captive aye‐aye, red ruffed, and black‐and‐white ruffed lemurs

“…At RNP, a primary location where aye-ayes and black-and-white ruffed lemurs are found, the peak of the wet season is typically January to March, while the peak of the dry season is typically June to October (Dunham et al, 2010). Food is most abundant from November to April and less abundant from May through October (Beeby & Baden, 2021). Thus, our measurements of hair growth rates taken in January and July in North Carolina corresponded with the mid-wet and mid-dry, abundant and lean seasons of Madagascar and especially RNP, respectively.…”

Nutrient balancing in a fruit‐specialist primate, the black‐and‐white ruffed lemur (Varecia variegata)

“…Ruffed lemurs (Genus Varecia ), found in Madagascar's eastern rainforests, are among the largest and most frugivorous of the living lemurs (Baden et al, 2008; Dew & Wright, 1998; Martinez & Razafindratsima, 2014; Razafindratsima et al, 2014; Vasey, 2006; Wright et al, 2011). Although they prefer fruits, they seasonally consume large quantities of flowers and fall back on leaves when other foods are not available (Balko, 1998; Beeby & Baden, 2021; Britt, 2000; Holmes et al, 2016). Despite their dietary breadth, ruffed lemurs exhibit several fruit‐specialist traits (Campbell et al, 2000; Edwards, 1995; Edwards & Ulrey, 1999), and have been shown to be highly susceptible to the effects of habitat degradation (White et al, 1995) and climate change (Morelli et al, 2020).…”

“…Despite their dietary breadth, ruffed lemurs exhibit several fruit‐specialist traits (Campbell et al, 2000; Edwards, 1995; Edwards & Ulrey, 1999), and have been shown to be highly susceptible to the effects of habitat degradation (White et al, 1995) and climate change (Morelli et al, 2020). Several studies have shown Varecia to alter their feeding behavior in response to changes in fruit availability resulting from both climatic seasonality and habitat disturbance (Balko, 1998; Balko & Underwood, 2005; Beeby & Baden, 2021; Britt, 2000; Holmes et al, 2016; Ratsimbazafy, 2002, 2006). Though one study examined the nutrient composition of dietary foods in one V. variegata population in eastern Madagascar (Schmidt et al, 2010), to date, there has been no exploration of nutrient intakes in this taxon.…”