Seasonal Occurrence of Aflatoxin M1 in Raw Milk during a Five-Year Period in Croatia: Dietary Exposure and Risk Assessment

Abstract

This study’s objective was to estimate the seasonal occurrence of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in cow’s milk between winter 2016 and winter 2022 and to assess dietary exposure and risk assessment for the adult Croatian population. In total, 5817 cow milk samples were screened for AFM1 concentrations using the enzyme immunoassay assay (ELISA). For confirmation purposes of AFM1 concentration above the European Union maximum permitted level (MRL), ultra high-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry was performed. In 94.7% of milk samples, AFM1 levels were below the detection limit (LOD) of the ELISA test. For 3.47% of samples, the AFM1 was between the LOD and MRL values. Only 1.87% of all samples exceeded the MRL. The mean value of elevated AFM1 in different seasons ranged between 59.2 ng/kg (autumn 2017) and 387.8 ng/kg (autumn 2021). The highest incidences of positive AFM1 were determined in autumn and winter and the maximum (6.4%) was in winter 2019/2020. The largest percentage of positive samples (69.7%) was found in central Croatia. The estimated daily intakes for positive samples ranged between 0.17 and 2.82 ng/kg body weight/day. Risk assessment indicated a high level of concern during autumn and winter, especially for consumers of large amounts of milk.

Exposure and Health Risk Assessment of Aflatoxin M1 in Raw Milk and Cottage Cheese in Adults in Ethiopia

“…All adult consumers in Kenya were exposed to an average of 0.8-1.4 and 0.4-0.7 ng/kg bw/day of AFM 1 through milk products from low-and middle-income areas, respectively [38]. The mean EDI (0.71 ng/kg bw/day) in raw milk sold in Indian markets was higher for adults [39]. EDI values for Croatian adults obtained from mean raw milk consumption ranged from 0.17 to 2.82 ng/kg bw/day [40].…”

Discussion on emergency management of food safety from the perspective of foodborne diseases caused by mycotoxins

“…Aflatoxin M1 is a mammalian hydroxylated metabolite of AFB1 excreted through urine and has been classified as a possible human carcinogen in breast milk (Group 2B) (Misihairabgwi et al, 2019;International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2012;Pimpitak et al, 2020;Abdullah Murshed et al, 2022;Jakšić et al, 2021). Studies have shown that the effect of AFB1 and AFM1-induced injury and its ability to induce cancer initiation is related to a group of genes/proteins/miRNAs (Bilandžić et al, 2022;Marchese et al, 2018).The decline in aflatoxin levels depends on the combination of time and temperature and is not affected by fermentation. Aflatoxins can be destroyed by acid and base hydrolysis and the activity of oxidizing agents.…”

Occurrence of Aflatoxin M1 in Milk and Dairy Products Traded in São Paulo, Brazil: An Update

“…Moreover, about 79% of pasteurized and UHT milk were found to be contaminated with AFM 1 , with high seasonal variation, whereas a high AFM 1 prevalence was observed in the winter [27]. A recent study confirmed that higher risk concerns regarding AFM 1 contamination of milk in Croatia were associated with autumn and winter [23]. However, a survey conducted in Bangladesh indicated no or small significant differences correlated to the seasonality [22].…”

“…For instance, human exposure to an exceeded limit of AFM 1 in any of these products can contribute as causative agents for human diseases such as hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) [21]. Thus, determination of AFM 1 in milk and dairy products are essential for control purposes, which requires appropriate analytical techniques such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) [22,23], high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) [24], and HPLC coupled tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) [25].…”