Seasonal Detection of Human Viruses and Coliphage in Newport Bay, California

Abstract

Recent studies have shown that the fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) currently used to indicate water quality in the coastal environment may be inadequate to reflect human viral contamination. Coliphage was suggested as a better indicator of human viral pollution and was proposed by the U.S. EPA as an alternative indicator for fecal pollution in groundwater. In this study, we investigated the occurrence and distribution of FIB, F؉ coliphage, and PCRdetectable human adenovirus and enterovirus for an entire year at 15 locations around the Newport Bay watershed, an important southern California estuary for water recreation and an ecological reserve. Peak concentrations and prevalences of FIB and F؉ coliphage were associated with winter storms (wet weather). Human adenoviruses and enteroviruses, however, were detected by PCR in ϳ5% of samples collected in the summer (dry weather) but only once in wet weather. These results demonstrated that FIB and coliphage have similar seasonal and freshwater-tosaltwater distribution patterns, while the detection of human viruses depends on a distribution pattern that is the opposite of that of FIB and coliphage. This research suggested that coliphage and FIB share similar environmental sources, while sources of human viruses in Newport Bay are perhaps different.Coastal recreational water quality standards in California and throughout most of the world are based on the concentration of coliforms or Enterococcus spp., known as fecal indicator bacteria (FIB). However, the adequacy of current water quality standards to indicate the presence of human viral pathogens is still questionable. For example, Marino et al. (23) conducted a study of two Mediterranean bathing beaches, using WHO/UNEP and European Community bathing water directives as the microbial water quality guidelines. They concluded that neither set of guidelines was successful for protecting the public from health hazards related to fecal contamination of bathing water (23).

Coliphages as Model Organisms in the Characterization and Management of Water Resources

“…Thus, many studies have failed to show any correlation in fresh surface waters [133][134][135][136][137], marine surface water [136][137][138], and groundwater [131,139]. In contrast, other studies have shown some correlation between human viruses and F-specific phages [23,123,126,140,141] and between human viruses and somatic coliphages in surface waters [104,140,142], between enteroviruses and somatic coliphages in sludge [82], and between human viruses and both somatic and F-specific phages in surface water [78].…”

“…In groundwater these failures have been identified for enteroviruses, rotaviruses, hepatitis-A viruses, and noroviruses [131,139]; noroviruses, enteroviruses, rotaviruses, adenoviruses, and hepatitis-A viruses [129]; enteroviruses and noroviruses [127]; and enteroviruses, adenoviruses, and reoviruses [143]. In surface waters, a lack of co-occurrence or correlation has been reported for adenoviruses and enteroviruses [136]; enteroviruses and adenoviruses [142]; enteroviruses and adenoviruses [124]; adenoviruses and noroviruses [144]; and enteroviruses and polyomaviruses [145]. In contrast, some studies on surface waters have shown correlations among different pathogenic viruses, such as astroviruses, noroviruses, rotaviruses, and adenoviruses [23]; enteroviruses, reoviruses, noroviruses, and rotaviruses [78]; and adenoviruses and noroviruses [141].…”

Escherichia coli in the Environment: Implications for Water Quality and Human Health

“…Host-specific markers, targeting 16S rDNA and other genes, have been identified for E coli 43,57,58) , methanogens 100,101) , viruses and coliphage 52,59) , member of the Bacteriodales 32,62,78,89) , and metagenomic DNA fragments 91,92) . However, before use in field studies these host-specific markers need to be validated by estimating the proportion of false-positives and false-negatives in the target population, and for sensitivity in detecting these bacteria that are present in low numbers in complex matrices, such as soil and sediment.…”

“…Library-independent MST methods employ host-specific markers, including PCR primers 32,52,[57][58][59]62,78,89,91,92) and gene probes 43,94) , to determine sources of fecal pollution. Host-specific markers, targeting 16S rDNA and other genes, have been identified for E coli 43,57,58) , methanogens 100,101) , viruses and coliphage 52,59) , member of the Bacteriodales 32,62,78,89) , and metagenomic DNA fragments 91,92) .…”

Recommended advanced techniques for waterborne pathogen detection in developing countries

“…In general, any microbial contamination of water sources is a probable health concern and needs to be monitored closely. This is because contaminated water could harbor a variety of pathogens, such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Shigella, Campylobacter, Yersinia, Vibrio, enterovirus, norovirus, adenovirus, coxsackievirus, echovirus, and hepatitis A and E viruses (HAV, HEV), Schistosoma, Dracunculus medinensis, Echinococcus granulosus, Entamoeba histolytica, Cryptosporidium parvum, and Giardia lamblia [5][6][7][8][9][10][11].…”