Subject‐performed task effect on working memory performance in children with autism spectrum disorder

Abstract

A previous study found that children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have better recall when they perform instructions (subject‐performed task [SPT]) than when they passively hear instructions (verbal task [VT]) in a working memory task for instructions, an effect that is called the SPT effect. This study explored whether the SPT effect exhibited by ASD children is caused by the movement component or by processing materials twice. More importantly, this study explored whether intelligence influences the SPT effect exhibited by ASD children. ASD children with three levels of intelligence (N = 56) and a control group, children with intellectual disability (ID) who had low intelligence but did not have ASD (N = 21), were asked to perform working memory tasks for instructions under VT, SPT and repeated (hearing the instruction twice) conditions. No significant difference in performance was observed between the VT and repeated conditions, regardless of the child's level of intelligence. ASD children with lower‐middle intelligence exhibited a smaller SPT effect than ASD children with upper‐middle intelligence. Critically, while ASD children with low intelligence did not exhibit the SPT effect, an ID group with equivalent low intelligence did show this effect. Therefore, these results show that the SPT effect for ASD children is caused by the movement component and is uniquely associated with a certain level of intelligence, namely, lower middle and higher levels of intelligence. Lay Summary In ASD children, the benefit of physically performing instructions for working memory performance is uniquely associated with a certain level of intelligence. Only ASD children with lower‐middle intelligence (and higher) benefit from physically performing instructions, and higher intelligence increases this benefit; ASD children with low intelligence do not show this benefit. This benefit in ASD children is attributed to the additional motoric code generated by physical performance.

Encoding arm and leg movements in the same or opposite direction

“…However, the comparison between them was regulated by the encoding direction, and significant differences were observed in either direction (the same or opposite direction relative to the observed direction). Learning movements by imitation involves the same or opposite direction relative to the observed direction, while performing movements without imitation does not involve direction (e.g., performing a movement consistent with an action phrase, such as knocking on the door in a verbal working memory task; see Allen et al, 2019; L. J. Wang et al, 2022).…”

“…In addition, our finding that arm and leg movements do not differ in working memory performance when the encoding direction is not considered has important enlightening significance for studies of embodied cognition that also focus on limb movements but do not involve motor learning (without imitation). Studies have generally found that individuals can recall verbal instructions better when they physically perform instructions than when they only hear instructions, a phenomenon called the “enactment effect” (Allen et al, 2019; L. J. Wang et al, 2022).…”

“…Learning movements by imitation involves the same or opposite direction relative to the observed direction, while performing movements without imitation does not involve direction (e.g., performing a movement consistent with an action phrase, such as knocking on the door in a verbal working memory task; see Allen et al, 2019; L. J. Wang et al, 2022). Therefore, there are differences between working memory for arm and leg movements in motor tasks that involve imitation rather than in motor tasks that do not involve imitation.…”

Practice is the best of all instructors—Effects of enactment encoding and episodic future thinking on prospective memory performance in high‐functioning adults with autism spectrum disorder

“…Several studies have reported beneficial effects of EE on long‐term memory in individuals with ASD with average and high cognitive abilities (Grainger et al, 2014; Yamamoto & Masumoto, 2018; Zalla et al, 2010). Moreover, beneficial effects of EE on working memory were found in autistic children with lower middle and higher levels of intelligence (Wang et al, 2022), though some evidence suggests that EE might be less effective in ASD than in typically developing children (Xie et al, 2024). While there are no studies that have specifically examined EE as an encoding strategy for PM performance in autistic individuals, its beneficial effects have been shown in other populations with difficulties in executive functions and episodic memory (Pereira et al, 2015, 2018).…”