Middle Bronze Age II Battleaxes from Rishon LeZion, Israel: Archaeology and Metallurgy

Abstract

Thirteen bronze battleaxes from Middle Bronze Age II graves at Rishon LeZion, Israel were analysed by ED XRF at multiple surface locations in order to determine their metallurgical composition. Six of these were further subjected to neutron diffraction using an ENGIN-X diffractometer in order to determine bulk phase composition. The results indicate that the previously established geographical and chronological variability in Sn-Cu (with occasional Pb) and As-Cu alloys found using the former method may be an artefact of preservation and conservation. In addition, the varying homogeneity determined by the latter reflects special treatment for improving on the metal cast.

A Comparison Study of Middle Bronze Age II Daggers and Their Rivets as a Tool for a Better Understanding of Their Production

“…Table 1 because they have no rivets. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] Type B: the metal composition of the rivets According to the XRF results, only one of these six daggers (B-1) was produced from copper alloyed with high (17%) Sn and 0.7% As. This higher than 14% Sn concentration is probably a reflection of a tin-enriched corrosion (see, for comparison, the results in Shalev et al 2014). At the same time, in this dagger the Sn content of the rivets is much lower than in the blade.…”

“…All the daggers were cleaned as close as possible to their original surface by the IAA conservation laboratory before being analysed. Alloys of relative quantities higher than 3% lead and 15% tin were considered as surface enrichment by corrosion, based on our study of axes of similar metals from the same excavation using XRF in combination with neutron diffraction (Shalev et al 2014).…”

Middle Bronze Age Arsenical Copper Alloys in Southern Portugal

“…Several experiments have proven that such extreme deformation becomes possible with a higher arsenic content (up to the solubility limit, ~7–8% As, in equilibrium) producing a stronger and more ductile alloy (Hanson and Marryat ; Lechtman ). Prehistoric tools with a harder cutting edge and a softer inner bulk were more efficient for cutting and had a greater toughness, thus reducing the probability of cracks and fractures (Shalev et al ).…”

Distinguishability between ancient and modern leaded tin bronzes by the composition of their lead inclusions

“…It must be remembered that all phase diagrams might actually be termed equilibrium only conditionally, because reaching a true equilibrium state requires a considerable time. For example, even millennial-long time intervals are insufficient for the homogenization of Cu-Sn solid solutions in ancient bronzes (Valério et al 2012;Shalev et al 2014). Contrary to that, Pb inclusions in ancient bronzes could, in our opinion, provide a unique opportunity to check whether the composition of Pb-Sn solution can undergo observable changes over archaeological time spans.…”