Scorpions from Mexico: From Species Diversity to Venom Complexity

Abstract

Scorpions are among the oldest terrestrial arthropods, which are distributed worldwide, except for Antarctica and some Pacific islands. Scorpion envenomation represents a public health problem in several parts of the world. Mexico harbors the highest diversity of scorpions in the world, including some of the world’s medically important scorpion species. The systematics and diversity of Mexican scorpion fauna has not been revised in the past decade; and due to recent and exhaustive collection efforts as part of different ongoing major revisionary systematic projects, our understanding of this diversity has changed compared with previous assessments. Given the presence of several medically important scorpion species, the study of their venom in the country is also important. In the present contribution, the diversity of scorpion species in Mexico is revised and updated based on several new systematic contributions; 281 different species are recorded. Commentaries on recent venomic, ecological and behavioral studies of Mexican scorpions are also provided. A list containing the most important peptides identified from 16 different species is included. A graphical representation of the different types of components found in these venoms is also revised. A map with hotspots showing the current knowledge on scorpion distribution and areas explored in Mexico is also provided.

Recombinant expression of Intrepicalcin from the scorpion Vaejovis intrepidus and its effect on skeletal ryanodine receptors

“…Scorpions are fascinating animals existing on Earth for over 400 million years, allowing them to develop more than 2 200 (Santibáñez-López et al, 2015) different species with sophisticated venoms that have been playing a pivotal role for their survival and successful evolution, fundamentally, to protect themselves against predators, as well as to provide them with effective tools for capturing their preys (Dunlop and Selden, 2009; Jeyaprakash and Hoy, 2009). The venoms contain a molecular arsenal of different toxins that can be considered as a true combinatorial library of peptides with diversified biological activites such as anti-cancer (Dardevet et al, 2015), antimicrobial (Torres-Larios et al, 2000; Luna-Ramirez et al, 2013; Harrison et al, 2014), antiviral (Yan et al, 2011; Chen et al, 2012), antimalarial (Conde et al, 2000; Carballar-Lejarazu et al, 2008), immune-modulatory (Gurrola et al, 2012; Remijsen et al, 2010; Varga et al, 2012), anti-epilepsy (Wang et al, 2001) and bradykinin potentiating components (Almaaytah and Albalas, 2014).…”

Venom Gland Transcriptomic and Proteomic Analyses of the Enigmatic Scorpion Superstitionia donensis (Scorpiones: Superstitioniidae), with Insights on the Evolution of Its Venom Components

“…Despite the large number of studies available in the scorpion venom literature, concerning venom components and identification of their activities, only twelve scorpion families of the twenty recognized extant families [1,2] are currently studied (Table 1). While most of the studied scorpions belong to the family Buthidae, an increasing number of species from other families (i.e., Bothriuridae, Caraboctonidae, Hormuridae, Scorpionidae, Scorpiopidae, Urodacidae and Vaejovidae) are drawing the attention of researchers.…”

“…While most of the studied scorpions belong to the family Buthidae, an increasing number of species from other families (i.e., Bothriuridae, Caraboctonidae, Hormuridae, Scorpionidae, Scorpiopidae, Urodacidae and Vaejovidae) are drawing the attention of researchers. In recent years, transcriptomic analyses of the venom gland of several scorpion species have been published, increasing our knowledge on the biodiversity of venom peptides, and allowing us to focus on the evolution of the genes coding for them (e.g., [1,3,4,5,6]). More recently, RNA-Seq has become the technology of choice in the study of venom gland transcriptomes, because it is a low-cost sequencing technology capable of producing millions of sequences at once [6], including those of the transcripts coding for several putative toxins or venom components that may not be easily detected in the venom for reasons including low expression levels, fast turnover, etc.…”

“…This family, along with family Akravidae Levi, 2007 (a possible extinct family), are the only two monotypic scorpion families, meaning that each contains only one genus and one species (see [1]). The phylogenetic position of the family Superstitioniidae within the Tree of Life of scorpions suggests that it is closely related to the family Typhlochactidae Mitchell, 1971, a family of troglobitic scorpions endemic to Mexico [1], with both families included within the superfamily Chactoidea [8]; therefore, distantly related to buthid scorpions. The Superstitioniidae is geographically isolated in Arizona and the Baja Peninsula from its closest Typhlochactidae relatives in Eastern Mexico.…”

A new Sky Island species of Vaejovis C. L. Koch, 1836 from Sonora, Mexico (Scorpiones, Vaejovidae)

“…Approximately 2300 species of scorpions have been described worldwide (Santibáñez-López et al 2016). The family Vaejovidae is the most diverse scorpion family on North America, with at least 211 described species.…”