Scorpion speciation in the Holy Land: Multilocus phylogeography corroborates diagnostic differences in morphology and burrowing behavior among Scorpio subspecies and justifies recognition as phylogenetic, ecological and biological species

Genome-wide SNP data and morphology support the distinction of two new species of Kovarikia Soleglad, Fet & Graham, 2014 endemic to California (Scorpiones, Vaejovidae)

“…1), both species appear to be geographically isolated. Morphology among the species of Kovarikia is relatively conserved, despite deep genetic divergences, consistent with recent studies of other stenotopic scorpions (e.g., Bryson et al 2013; Talal et al 2015). Phylogeographic structure within K. williamsi and K. bogerti suggest additional cryptic species are probably present in the genus and reveal the need for future research with denser sampling.…”

Similar burrow architecture of three arid-zone scorpion species implies similar ecological function

“…Scorpio palmatus, which has been extensively studied in Israel (e.g., Levy and Amitai 1980;Shachak and Brand 1983;Kotzman et al 1989;Rutin 1996;Talal et al 2015), inhabits brown-red sandy soils, loess, and alluvium (Levy and Amitai 1980). Burrows are always constructed in open ground and run parallel to the surface for approximately 10 cm before turning and descending at an angle of descent of 20-40°for 20-70 cm and terminating in an enlarged chamber (Levy and Amitai 1980;Talal et al 2015).…”

“…Burrows are always constructed in open ground and run parallel to the surface for approximately 10 cm before turning and descending at an angle of descent of 20-40°for 20-70 cm and terminating in an enlarged chamber (Levy and Amitai 1980;Talal et al 2015). Depending on the species, Opistophthalmus construct burrows under stones or in open ground.…”

“…The form of scorpion burrows ranges from short runs or scrapes (e.g., Harington 1978;Robertson et al 1982) to complex, spiral tunnels up to 3 m long, terminating a meter below the ground surface (our unpublished observations). However, most are simple tunnels, 15-30 cm deep, descending gradually from the surface at an angle of 20-40° (Williams 1966;Newlands 1972a;Eastwood 1978;Newlands 1978;Polis et al 1986;Polis 1990;Prendini et al 2003;Talal et al 2015). Burrow structure and depth differ among species and depend on habitat and soil type, hardness, texture, and composition (Koch 1978;Lamoral 1978Lamoral , 1979Koch 1981;Prendini 2001Prendini , 2005Hembree et al 2012).…”

“…Burrow structure and depth differ among species and depend on habitat and soil type, hardness, texture, and composition (Koch 1978;Lamoral 1978Lamoral , 1979Koch 1981;Prendini 2001Prendini , 2005Hembree et al 2012). The burrows of scorpions that inhabit mesic environments are often shallow and constructed beneath rocks, logs, or other surface debris (Smith 1966;Crawford and Riddle 1975;Eastwood 1978;Shivashankar 1992;Tare et al 1993;Shivashankar 1994;Talal et al 2015), whereas, in xeric environments, scorpion burrows are often deeper, more complex, and constructed in open ground (Koch 1978;Lamoral 1979;Polis et al 1986;Talal et al 2015). Some species are known to move along temperature gradients within their burrows to regulate body temperature (Hadley 1970b), and the tortuous architecture of some burrows may facilitate vertical movement within them (Polis 1990).…”