Schooling, intelligence, and income.

Ceci, Stephen J.; Williams, Wendy M.

doi:10.1037/0003-066x.52.10.1051

Cited by 335 publications

(244 citation statements)

References 37 publications

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“…The second explanation is based on the well-known finding that schooling increases IQ (Ceci, 1991;Ceci & Williams, 1997). School instruction is particularly effective when classes are small (Ehrenberg, Brewer, Gamoran, & Wilms, 2001;NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2004), and music lessons are typically taught individually or in small groups.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…For example, children who take music lessons tend to have well-educated and financially successful parents (Sergeant & Thatcher, 1974). IQ is known to have a substantial genetic component (Petrill et al, 2004;Plomin, Fulker, Corely, & DeFries, 1997) and to be associated positively with educational achievement (Ceci & Williams, 1997;Neisser et al, 1996;Wechsler, 1991) and with career status (Gottfredson, 1997(Gottfredson, , 2002Schmidt & Hunter, 1998). Previous correlational research has failed to account for these potential confounding variables, either through statistical means or by recruiting groups that are equivalent on these dimensions.…”

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confidence: 99%

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Long-term positive associations between music lessons and IQ.

Schellenberg

2006

Journal of Educational Psychology

334

332

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In Study 1 (N ϭ 147), duration of music lessons was correlated positively with IQ and with academic ability among 6-to 11-year-olds, even when potential confounding variables (i.e., family income, parents' education, involvement in nonmusical activities) were held constant. In Study 2 (N ϭ 150), similar but weaker associations between playing music in childhood and intellectual functioning were evident among undergraduates. In both studies, there was no evidence that musical involvement had stronger associations with some aspects of cognitive ability (e.g., mathematical, spatial-temporal, verbal) than with others. These results indicate that formal exposure to music in childhood is associated positively with IQ and with academic performance and that such associations are small but general and long lasting.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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confidence: 99%

Long-term positive associations between music lessons and IQ.

Schellenberg

2006

Journal of Educational Psychology

334

332

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“…Hence, the proportion of the variation in income that can be explained on the basis of variation in IQ is actually rather small. (Ceci & Williams, 1997, p. 1057 So, the claim by meritocracy advocates that society's resources are being bifurcated as a result of a widening gene pool for intelligence does not mesh with the empirical reality: Income varies much more because of non-IQ differences than because of IQ differences, leading one team of economists to remark, "If all that mattered was [IQ] scores, U.S. society would clearly be very egalitarian. Eliminating differences due to IQ would have little effect on the overall level of inequality" (Dickens et al, 1995, p. 20).…”

Section: Figure 4 Top and Bottom Scoring Scholastic Assessment Test (mentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Put bluntly, if income were distributed according to differences in IQ, one would expect a far less asymmetric distribution of income than there is now. "Many more people would earn close to the national mean, and far fewer would earn at either of the extremes" (Ceci & Williams, 1997, p. 1057.…”

Section: Figure 4 Top and Bottom Scoring Scholastic Assessment Test (mentioning

confidence: 99%

Are Americans becoming more or less alike? Trends in race, class, and ability differences in intelligence.

Williams¹,

Ceci²

1997

American Psychologist

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American students' test scores have been slowly but steadily declining for the past half century. Some recent explanations for this decline have focused on dysgenic trends resulting from low-IQ parents outbreeding high-IQ parents. In this article, the authors examined the evidence for dysgenic trends by considering race-, class-, and ability-related changes in intelligence test scores over time. They concluded that (a) racial differences in intelligence decreased from 1973 to 1988 and have remained fairly constant since, (b) intelligence differences between the upper and lower thirds of social class groups have been decreasing slightly since 1932, and (c) Preliminary Scholastic Assessment Test-score differences between the top and bottom quartiles have been relatively stable since 1961. Thus, the authors found no evidence supporting the dysgenic hypothesis. Rather, the combined evidence points to a growing convergence across racial, socioeconomic, and ability-related segments of American society.

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“…To the extent that offspring characteristics influence parental expectations, we should expect parental expectations to show genetic influences, reflecting at least in part genetically influenced characteristics of the child. Thus, these genetic influences on parental expectations should also have strong links to genetic influences on child school performance and to genetic influences on characteristics related to school performance such as intelligence (Ceci & Williams, 1997). A second purpose of this study was to measure the extent of these links.…”

Section: Using Coevolution To Combine the Two Parenting Research Tradmentioning

confidence: 99%

How parents influence school grades: Hints from a sample of adoptive and biological families

Johnson

Iacono

2007

Learning and Individual Differences

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Using the biological and adoptive families in the Minnesota-based Sibling Interaction and Behavior Study, we investigated the associations among genetic and environmental influences on IQ, parenting, parental expectations for offspring educational attainment, engagement in school, and school grades. All variables showed substantial genetic influence, and very modest shared environmental influence. No gender differences were evident. There were significant genetic influences common to IQ and parental expectations of educational attainment, parenting and engagement in school, school grades and engagement in school, parental expectations for offspring educational attainment and school grades, and IQ and school grades. A possible interpretation of the common genetic influences involving parenting is that parents use their own experience with school in shaping the ways in which they parent their offspring.Among developmental and clinical psychologists, parenting is considered to be an important influence on children's academic outcomes (e.g., Gadeyne, Ghesquiere, & Onghena, 2004;Steinberg, Elmen, & Mounts, 1989). This is supported by a large volume of evidence from longitudinal (e.g., Steinberg, Lamborn, Darling, Mounts, & Dornbusch, 1994) and experimental intervention studies (e.g, Forgatch & DeGarmo, 1999), as well as by studies of concurrent associations. Investigations of the mechanisms by which parents exert their effects on academic outcomes tend to follow one of two general traditions (Kellaghan, Sloane, Alvarez, & Bloom, 1993): examination of the effects on children of parental actions, or "what parents do", and exploration of the effects on children of "who parents are". The classic parenting research focusing on socialization activities by parents in the form of emotional tone, disciplinary practices, responsiveness, and expectations (e.g., Baumrind, 1991;Maccoby & Martin, 1983) comes from the "what parents do" tradition, as does research on the quality of the home learning environment provided to children (e.g., Bradley, 1994;de Jong & Leseman, 2001). The "who parents are" tradition is represented by studies positing that socioeconomic and cultural factors carry with them trait-like parental socialization practices with a variety of contextual influences that affect development (e.g., Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001;Gutman & McLoyd, 2000). Of course, the two research traditions do not necessarily reflect distinctCorresponding author: Wendy Johnson, c/o Department of Psyhology, University of Minnesota -Twin Cities, 75 East River Road, Minneapolis, MN 55455, 952-473-1673, wendy.Johnson@ed.ac.uk. Publisher's Disclaimer: This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final citable form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could...

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Schooling, intelligence, and income.

Abstract: ~o e word is out: The benefits of staying in school e pervasive. School attendance is associated with wer rates of teen pregnancy, welfare dependency, and criminality proneness, to name only a few of the myriad advantages of staying in school (Bronfenbrenner,

Cited by 335 publications

References 37 publications

Long-term positive associations between music lessons and IQ.

Long-term positive associations between music lessons and IQ.

Are Americans becoming more or less alike? Trends in race, class, and ability differences in intelligence.

How parents influence school grades: Hints from a sample of adoptive and biological families

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