School Suspension in Florida: The Interactive Effects of Race, Ethnicity, Gender, and Academic Achievement

Racial and Ethnic Disparities in School Discipline: The Interactive Effects of Gender and Parental Educational Attainment

“…However, these results also indicate that White females receive substantial benefits in school discipline, while Black and-to a lesser extent-Hispanic females are disparately penalized. This latter finding comports with evidence from prior quantitative and qualitative work (e.g., Lehmann & Meldrum, 2019;Morris, 2005Morris, , 2007 and might suggest that schools use sanctioning practices to enforce racialized and gendered behavioral norms. Indeed, it is theoretically plausible that minority female students who are perceived as failing to live up to White middle-class feminine standards of passivity and agreeableness, even in rather benign ways, might be perceived as disruptive, insolent, or "unladylike" and disciplined accordingly.…”

“…For example, corresponding with the theoretical expectation that minority status is more strongly associated with images of dangerousness and threat for male students than for females (Carter et al, 2017;Rios, 2011), some prior research has shown that Black males represent the race/gender subgroup with the highest probability of experiencing a suspension, expulsion, office discipline referral, or referral to law enforcement (Anyon et al, 2014;Mizel et al, 2016). Other work, however, has found that disparities between minority students and Whites in these outcomes are substantially more pronounced among females than males (Lehmann & Meldrum, 2019;1 Morris & Perry, 2017;Raffaele Mendez & Knoff, 2003;Wallace et al, 2008), thus providing support for the perspective that school discipline is paternalistic and the misbehavior of Black and Hispanic girls can be perceived as violating behavioral norms that are connected to both race and gender (Blake et al, 2011;Carter Andrews et al, 2019;Morris, 2005Morris, , 2007.…”

“… 1. While Lehmann and Meldrum (2019) also explored the main and interactive effects of race/ethnicity and gender on school discipline, the present study is distinct from that research in several respects. First, and most importantly, this study is concerned with the educational attainment/SES of the youths’ parents, not the grades earned by the students in school.…”

Cumulative Racial and Ethnic Disparities Along the School-to-Prison Pipeline

“…Not only are people of color overrepresented in the criminal justice system (Carson 2020; U.S. Office of Justice Programs 2021), but Black and-to a lesser extent-Latinx students disproportionately experience suspension and expulsion compared to White students (U.S. Department of Education 2019). Multivariate analyses of the characteristics and conditions associated with exclusionary school punishment corroborate that minority students are likelier to be disciplined net of other influences (e.g., Anyon et al 2014;Gregory and Weinstein 2008;Ksinan et al 2019;Lehmann and Meldrum 2021;Mittleman 2018;Mowen and Brent 2016;Peguero and Shekarkhar 2011;Rocque and Paternoster 2011;Skiba et al 2011;2014;Young, Young, and Butler 2018). Corporal punishment also has been used more frequently for students of color (McClure and May 2014), and minority youth are less likely than their White peers to receive restorative disciplinary outcomes such as conferencing, mediation circles, and restitution (Ramey 2016;Skiba et al 2016;Skiba and Rausch 2006).…”

Sleep duration, depressive symptoms, and digital self‐harm among adolescents

“…Finally, if a participant selected only White, the youth was coded as White. This coding procedure has been employed in other recent studies using FYSAS data (Lehmann & Meldrum, 2019).…”